Hebrew astronomy refers to any astronomy written in Hebrew or by Hebrew speakers, or translated into Hebrew. It also includes an unusual type of literature from the Middle Ages: works written in Arabic but transcribed in the Hebrew alphabet. It includes a range of genres from the earliest astronomy and mythical cosmology contained in the Bible, mainly the Tanakh (Hebrew Bible or "Old Testament"), to Jewish religious works like the Talmud and very technical works.

Biblical cosmology

The universe of the Hebrew Bible was made up of a flat disc-shaped earth floating on water, heaven above, underworld below.^[1] Only in Hellenistic times (after c. 330 BCE) was the older three-level cosmology widely replaced by the Greek concept of a spherical earth suspended in space at the centre of a number of concentric heavens.^[1]

[edit] The firmament

Like most ancient peoples, the Hebrews believed the sky was a solid dome or firmament with the Sun, Moon and stars embedded in it.^[2]

[edit] Stars and constellations

Only a few stars and constellations are named individually in the Hebrew Bible, and their identification is not certain. The clearest references include:

• Kesîl,^[3] usually understood to be Orion, a giant angel.
• Kimah,^[4] which may be the Pleiades, Aldebaran, Arcturus, or Sirius.
• 'Ash or 'Ayish,^[5] possibly the Hyades or Ursa Major, or even the Evening Star (Venus when seen after sunset).
• Mezarim,^[6] which may be Ursa Major and Ursa Minor, or a synonym for mazzalot, in which case it would refer to the planets or the constellations of the zodiac.

[edit] Planets

Only two planets are named in the Tanakh:

• Saturn, called Chiun in Amos 5:26, closely related to the Assyrian "Kévan" or "kaiwanu."^{[citation needed]}
• Venus, called Meleket ha-Shamayim, "the queen of heaven," in Jeremiah 7:18 and elsewhere. That the latter means Venus is shown by the cakes which are said to have been baked for her.^{[citation needed]} Among the Assyrians and Babylonians the cake offerings were called "the bread of Ishtar."
• Helel, the "son of the morning," in Isaiah 14:12, is also thought by some^[who?] to be the morning star (Venus when visible before dawn). This identification is better known to many English speakers as Lucifer, the "light-bearer."

[edit] The Talmud

The information preserved in the Talmud do not emanate from one homogeneous system, as they are the accumulations of at least four centuries, and are traceable to various authors in the Jerusalem and Babylonian Talmuds, among whom some were inclined to mysticism.

[edit] Astronomy as a religious study

The high value of astronomical knowledge is already demonstrated by the astronomical section of the Book of Enoch (about 72-80 BCE), as well as by such sayings as those of Eleazar Ḥisma (about 100), a profound mathematician, who could "count the drops in the ocean" (Hor. 10a), and who declared that "ability to compute the solstice and the calendar is the 'dessert [auxiliaries] of wisdom '" (Ab. iii. 18). Among the sciences that Johanan ben Zakkai mastered was a knowledge of the solstices and the calendar; i.e., the ability to compute the course of the sun and the moon (Suk. 28a). Later writers declare that "to him who can compute the course of the sun and the revolution of the planets and neglects to do so, may be applied the words of the prophet (Isa. v. 12), 'They regard not the work of the Lord, neither consider the operation of his hands.'" To pay attention to the course of the sun and to the revolution of the planets is a religious injunction; for such is the import of the words (Deut. iv. 6), "This is your wisdom and your understanding in the sight of the nations" (Shab. 75a).

Despite the general importance and religious significance attached to astronomy in the Holy Land, no notable developments in astronomy happened there. The starry heavens of Palestine interested the Jews as creations of God and as means to determine the holidays, but for a better knowledge of them the Jews were undoubtedly indebted to the Babylonians and their Hellenic pupils, as evidenced by the foreign term gematria used to designate the computation of the calendar. Possibly this word represents a transposition of the Greek γραμματεία meaning "arithmetic, mathematics." Most of the observations of a scientific nature were transmitted by Samuel (250), who attended the schools of the Babylonians, and who claimed to possess as exact a knowledge of the heavenly regions as of the streets of his own city Nehardea. Certain rules must nevertheless have existed, because Rabban Gamaliel (about 100), who applied the lunar tablets and telescope, relied for authority upon such as had been transmitted by his paternal ancestors (Yer. R. H. ii. 58b; Bab. R. H. 25a).

[edit] Conceptions of Heaven and Earth

In the Talmud, as in the Bible, the heavens and the earth designate the two borders of the universe, with the heavens a hollow sphere covering the earth. One tannaitic authority states that the sphere consists of a strong and firm plate two or three fingers in thickness, always lustrous and never tarnishing, another estimates the diameter of this plate as one-sixth of the sun's diurnal journey,^{[citation needed]} while another, a Babylonian, estimates it at 1,000 parasangs (approx. 3728 miles). Yet another authority states that the diameter of the firmament is equal to the distance covered in 50 or 500 years and this is true also of the earth and the large sea (Tehom) upon which it rests.^[7]

The distance of the firmament from the earth is a journey of 500 years, a distance equivalent to the diameter of the firmament, through which the sun must saw its way in order to become visible.^[8] The firmament, according to some, consists of fire and water, and, according to others, of water only, while the stars consist of fire.^[9] East and West are at least as far removed from each other as is the firmament from the earth.^[10] Heaven and earth "kiss each other" at the horizon and between the water above and that below there are but two or three fingerbreadths.^[11] The earth rests upon water and is encompassed by it.

According to other conceptions the earth is supported by one, seven, or twelve pillars. These rest upon water, the water upon mountains, the mountains upon the wind, and the wind upon the storm.^[12] The nations of antiquity generally believed that the earth was a disk floating on water. There is also mentioned the terrestrial globe, kaddur, though it may also be translated as "disk". When Alexander the Great attempted to ascend to heaven he rose even higher and higher, until the earth appeared as a globe and the sea as a tray'.^[13] The earth is divided into three parts, habitable land, desert, and sea.

[edit] Chronology and the zodiac

Chronology was a chief consideration in the study of astronomy among the Jews; sacred time was based upon the cycles of the Sun and the Moon. The Talmud identified the twelve constellations of the zodiac with the twelve months of the Hebrew calendar. The correspondence of the constellations with their names in Hebrew and the months is as follows:

1. Aries - Ṭaleh - Nisan
2. Taurus - Shor - Iyar
3. Gemini - Teomim - Sivan
4. Cancer - Sarṭon - Tammuz
5. Leo - Ari - Av
6. Virgo - Betulah - Elul
7. Libra - Moznayim - Tishrei
8. Scorpio - 'Aḳrab - Cheshvan
9. Sagittarius - Ḳasshat - Kislev
10. Capricorn - Gedi - Tevet
11. Aquarius - D'li - Shevat
12. Pisces - Dagim - Adar

The first three are in the east, the second three in the south, the third three in the west, and the last three in the north; and all are attendant on the sun. According to one account, in the first three months (spring) the Sun travels in the south, in order to melt the snow; in the fourth through sixth months (summer) it travels directly above the earth, in order to ripen the fruit; in the seventh through ninth months (autumn) it travels above the sea, in order to absorb the waters; and in the last three months (winter) it travels over the desert, in order that the grain may not dry up and wither.

According to one conception, Aries, Leo, and Sagittarius face northward; Taurus, Virgo, and Capricornus westward; Gemini, Libra, and Aquarius southward; and Cancer, Scorpio, and Pisces eastward. Some scholars identified the twelve signs of the zodiac with the twelve tribes of Israel.

The four solstices (the Teḳufot of Nisan, Tammuz, Tishrei, and Tevet) are often mentioned as determining the seasons of the year and there are occasional references to the rising-place of the sun ('Er. 56a). Sometimes six seasons of the year are mentioned (Gen. R. xxxiv. 11), and reference is often made to the receptacle of the sun (ναρθήκιον), by means of which the heat of the orb is mitigated (Gen. R. vi. 6, and elsewhere). The Moon was also a part of the calendar: "The moon begins to shine on the 1st of the month; its light increases until the 15th, when the disk [(δίσκοσ)] is full; from the 15th to the 30th it wanes; and on the 30th it is invisible" (Ex. R. xv. 26).

[edit] The heavenly bodies and their motions

Two different cosmologies can be found in the Talmud. One is a flat Earth cosmology resembling descriptions of the world in the mythology of the Ancient Near East. The other, resembling ancient Greek astronomy, is the geocentric model, according to which the stars move about the earth. According to Aristotle, Ptolemy, and other philosophers among the Greeks, the stars have no motion of their own, being firmly attached to spheres whose center is the earth. A passage in the Talmud, the Baraita Pesahim 94b contrasts the pagan view with that of Jewish sages:

The learned of Israel say, "The sphere stands firm, and the planets revolve"; the learned of the nations say, "The sphere moves, and the planets stand firm." The learned of Israel say, "The sun moves by day beneath the firmament, and by night above the firmament"; the learned of the nations say, "The sun moves by day beneath the firmament, and by night beneath the earth."

The sun has 365 windows through which it emerges; 182 in the east, 182 in the west, and 1 in the middle, the place of its first entrance. The course described by it in a year is traversed by the moon in 30 days. The solar year is longer by 11 days than the lunar year (Yer. R. H. ii. 58a). The sun completes its course in 12 months; Jupiter, in 12 years; Saturn, in 30 years; Venus and Mars, in 480 years (Gen. R. x. 4); however, an objection is raised here (in a gloss) against the last-mentioned number. King Antoninus asked the patriarch why the sun rises in the east and sets in the west. At the time of the Deluge it traveled in the opposite direction (Sanh. 91b, 108b). Every 28 years it returns to its original point of departure, and on Tuesday evening of the spring solstice it is in opposition with Saturn, although Plato maintained that the sun and planets never return to the place whence they started. This is the cycle of 28 years (Ber. 59b); the moon-cycle of 19 years may have been meant in the Targ. Yer. Gen. i. 14.

The names of the five planets,one star and one moon [planetary satellite] are:

• Shabbetai, Saturn
• Ẓedeḳ, Jupiter
• Maadim, Mars
• Ḥammah, the Sun
• Kokebet, Nogah or Kokab-Nogah, Venus
• Kokab, Mercury
• Lebanah, the Moon

From the names of the seven planets were derived the names of the days of the week and each day was consecrated to the particular planet that ruled during the early hours of the morning. The Talmudists were familiar with the planets and their characteristics in astrology; but only the week-days were counted, while the Sabbath had a name of its own.

[edit] Fixed stars and comets

The Milky Way is called "Fire-Stream," a name borrowed from Daniel vii. 10 (Nehar di-nur), where it may possibly have had the same signification. The statement is also made that the sting of Scorpio may be seen lying in the Milky Way.^[14] Samuel said: "We have it as a tradition that no comet ever passed across the face of Orion "Kesil"; for if this should happen the earth would be destroyed." When his hearers objected to this statement, saying, "Yet we see that this occurs," Samuel replied: "It only appears so; for the comet passes either above or below the star. Possibly also its radiance passes, but not its body." Again, Samuel says: "But for the warmth of Orion, the earth could not exist, because of the frigidity of Scorpio; furthermore, Orion lies near Taurus, with which the warm season begins.^[15] The comet, because of its tail, is called kokba de-shabbiṭ. (rodstar). Joshua ben Hananiah (about 100), declared that a star appears once every seventy years and leads mariners astray, hence they should at such time lay in a larger store of provisions.^[16] Rapoport endeavors to prove that the path of Halley's comet had been computed by a wise rabbi.^[17] Samuel said: "I know all the paths of heaven, but nothing of the nature of the comet."

The following Biblical names of constellations are mentioned and explained: Pleiades (Biblically known as the Seven Stars) [a cluster of] about a hundred stars, and for the much disputed, its equally obscure Aramaic equivalent (MS. M. ), Syriac, is given.^[18]

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hebrew_astronomy