The Knights Templar are those medieval warrior monks, that infamous ‘militia of Christ’ of popular imagination. And yet, they were the subject of speculative fantasy long before the more recent spate of books connecting them to secret knowledge about Jesus, or the Freemasons, or the alleged Lost Treasure of Jerusalem. On this latter, the Knights Templar had supposedly discovered the ‘treasure’ once belonging to the Old Testament King, Solomon, beneath his Temple in Jerusalem. However, not only has no such treasure ever been found, historians are divided on whether Solomon really existed. The same goes for the Temple, too, for “we know nothing about the First Temple, because there are no traces of its physical remains,” says Benjamin Kedar, a history professor at Hebrew University and chairman of the board of directors at the Israeli Antiquities Authority.
But if much of Templar history is fiction, ironically, it is the ‘fiction’ we’re interested in here. We want to know why so much mythic gloss is there, and why the ‘history’ just doesn’t add up. The answer is that the story of the Knights Templar has been suffused with Hermetic symbolism – the language of Alchemy. That’s right – the Hermetic Code has been smuggled into the real story of this band of wealthy, powerful Christian warriors to draw attention to the Adepts of Alchemy. Let’s investigate.
As far as the orthodox version goes, it was in 1118 that a nobleman, Hugues de Payen, visited Baldwin II, the reigning king of Jerusalem. He was accompanied by eight other men and on this day they vouchsafed the king their loyal service to protect Christian pilgrims on their route to the Holy Land. Baldwin thus installed the nine men in a wing of his palace, allegedly erected on the original site of the Temple of Solomon, the putative tenth century BC monarch. The Order of the Poor Knights of Christ and the Temple of Solomon was thus formed. A chronicle from about 1163, written by the prelate William of Tyre (c. 1130 – 1186), tells us that:
‘Although the knights now had been established for nine years [since 1118], there were still only nine of them. From this time onward their numbers began to grow and their possessions began to multiply. Later … it is said that both the knights and their humbler servants, called sergeants, began to affix crosses made of red cloth to their mantles, so as to distinguish themselves from others.’ 1
In a treatise from the early 12th century by the Cistercian abbot Bernard of Clairvaux, we find a glowing account of the Templars: In Praise of the new Knighthood. St. Bernard is apparently writing to Hugues de Payen, and extols the Templars’ virtues of fearlessness, valour, nobility, obedience, piety, and how the world should rejoice at their arrival in the Holy Land. As for where they lived, Bernard says, ‘their quarters indeed are in the very Temple of Jerusalem, which is not as vast as the ancient masterpiece of Solomon, but is no less glorious.’2 And yet – and this will soon become significant – Fulcher de Chartres, King Baldwin’s own biographer (writing much nearer to the time than either William or Bernard) never once mentions Hugues or his nine knights protecting the Holy Land.
Answerable only to the Pope himself, the Templars eventually became a powerful, independent force across the Continent. Stockpiling massive wealth, they essentially created the modern banking system as we know it, aided by donations of money and property from noble families whose sons had been admitted to their ranks. All of this eventually backfired on the Templars when, in 1307, Philippe IV of France had them arrested, and seven years later the last Grand Master of the Temple was burned alive at the stake. They were accused, among other things, of heresy: spitting or trampling on the Cross of Christ.
Significantly, their arrest and imprisonment was accompanied by the seizure of their property, and here is where the story picks up some occult interest. Among the goods confiscated by the Inquisition was a casket described as ‘a great head of gilded silver, most beautiful and constituting the image of a woman. Inside were two head-bones, wrapped in a cloth of white linen, and another red cloth around it. A label was attached, bearing the legend caput LVIIIm [“Head 58m”]. The bones inside were those of a rather small woman.’ Also, the Knights Templar were accused of worshiping (or at least venerating) a bearded male head: a skull, apparently, with three faces. The female skull and bones we’ve mentioned also appear in a medieval legend associated with the Templars:
‘A great lady of Maraclea was loved by a Templar, a Lord of Sidon ; but she died in her youth, and on the night of her burial this wicked lover crept to the grave, dug up her body, and violated it. Then a voice from the void bade him return in nine months time, for he would find a son. He obeyed the injunction, and at the appointed time opened the grave again and found a head on the leg bones of the skeleton (skull and cross-bones). The same voice bade him “guard it well, for it would be the giver of all good things,” and so he carried it away with him. It became his protecting genius, and he was able to defeat his enemies by merely showing them the magic head. In due course it passed into the possession of the Order.’3
For a start, unnatural sexual acts in myth and legend are always deeply symbolic (like the ‘incest’ of the Biblical Lot and his daughters, or Zeus seducing mortals whist in animal form). The underlying idea is that masculine and feminine energies combine to generate something higher, more refined, for such acts refer to the spiritual, not the physical, plane. (The sexual ‘violation’ in the Templar myth above, then, is metaphor.) Plus, the allusions to a head possessed of magical powers come directly from Celtic myth (indirectly, from Alchemy). For example, the head of King Bran could magically speak after being removed from his body. According to Paul Jacobsthal, ‘the Celts [venerated] the human head … above all else, since the head was to the Celt the soul, the centre of … life itself, a symbol of divinity and of the powers of the other-world.’4
The male idol the Knights Templar were accused of worshiping was likewise imbued with miraculous wealth-giving properties – it could even make the land germinate. (This was also a function of the alchemical Philosopher’s Stone.) Not surprisingly, it had three faces (the number of the alchemical stages.) And recall how the Templars’ female skull and bones (symbolising death, or blackness) are wrapped in white and red cloth. These are the three alchemical colours, the three stages of spiritual transformation which must occur: blackening/putrefaction, cleansing or whitening, and illumination/‘reddening’. Plus, you’ll recall the Templars’ attire is of these three colours, from the (black) chain mail, to the (white) smock, to the (red) cross emblazoned onto it.
The Symbolism – Grail, Stone and Knights Templar
The Templars also enjoy a brief reference in the cycle of Arthurian ‘Grail romances’ that began in medieval France. They are really examples of sacred story-telling dressed up as knightly adventures and one in particular – Wolfram von Eschenbach’s Parzival from c. 1200 – is of interest here. The callow, young, knight Parzival seeks out the wise hermit Trevrezent to learn about the Grail and is told: ‘At Monsalvage live a Knightly Brotherhood who are called Templars, and they serve there or in the world as the Grail commands.’ When Parzival asks what sustains them the hermit replies: ‘It is a Stone pure and precious. Through its magic, the wondrous bird, the Phoenix rises from the ashes to new life; also is man renewed by It. If he be ill and look upon It, he is made well. Those who look upon It daily never grow old. This Stone is called the Grail.’5 Thus, the Templars (for Wolfram) are associated with High Magic, presiding over a mystic symbol of spiritual renewal. It’s also why (soon to become obvious) the Knights are said to be originally nine in number.
Those investigating the outward history of the Knights Templar doubt that only nine knights could protect the roads leading to the Holy Land. Further doubt is cast upon the idea that no new members were let into the Order for another nine years. As Fulcher de Chartres failed to mention this early version of Templar History, we can assume such doubts are well founded. The nine is, in fact, symbolic – a common theme in World Myth, representing a magical cycle of completion after which one’s world is irrevocably transformed. Remember the Templar legend above where, after ‘nine months’, the Knight ‘would find a son’ (i.e. complete the Hermetic process).
According to Jolande Jacobi, it ‘has been a “magic number” for centuries’: the beautiful bard of Celtic myth, Taliesin, took nine months to be born from a black hen; there is a sacred spring in Ireland surrounded by nine wise hazel trees, and Nine Sisters oversee the otherworldly, magically invested Island of Apples. From classical legend we get the inspirational Nine Muses and the Ennead – a group of nine Egyptian deities. In Norse myth, the universe is divided into nine worlds all linked by the world tree Yggdrasil (a symbol of wholeness or ‘fate’). Plus the ‘ninth harmonic’ chart in astrology indicates a kind of fulfilment, initiation or completion – depicting the kind of fate one will encounter, no matter how much one tries to change it!
Nine is thus associated with the means towards spiritual perfection or initiatory wisdom; in psychological terms, when the whole psyche is fully integrated and individuated, as Carl Jung would have put it. ‘Guarding the way for pilgrims’ is a figure of speech, then, as is the ‘dangerous route to the Holy Land’ – for this route is an inner one, the spiritual path of all, and not an easy one to take. The ‘nine’ Knights Templar, those Guardians of the Grail in Parzival exist to ‘show the way’ towards one’s true spiritual centre (the ‘Holy Land’).
As for the charge that the Knights blasphemed by ‘trampling’ or denying the cross or even Christ himself, this was a misunderstanding about their own induction into the Christian Mysteries. According to the great Rudolf Steiner: ‘The Cross was held up before the would-be Templar and he was told: You must deny the Cross now, so as to understand it later; first become a Peter, first deny the scriptures, like Peter the Rock who denied the Lord. That was imparted to the aspirant Templar as a preliminary training’6
For Roy Norvill, the author of a modern Hermetic trilogy, this ‘heresy’ contains alchemical roots: ‘In biblical times, the Hebrew name for a Laundryman came from a word that means to trample (to trample with the feet to loosen the dirt, as was the practice). The early Launderer also processed new clothes by bleaching them white … to trample on the cross means to wash or bleach (purify to white) the cross … [symbolic of imperfect, corruptible matter]’7. Thus it was a spiritualising act, and according to Norvill, even the Latin inscription on the Cross (mentioned in the gospels) I.N.R.I (standing for ‘Jesus of Nazareth, King of the Jews’) had an Hermetic interpretation. The four letters stood for Igne Natura Renovatur Integra (‘By Fire [the Spirit], Nature is Renewed Whole’). Now there’s Alchemy for you!
1.The Foundation of the Order of Knights Templar, William of Tyre, Historia rerum in partibus transmarinis gestarum, XII, 7, Patrologia Latina 201, 526-27.
2. In Praise of the New Knighthood (Liber ad milites Templi: De laude novae militae), St. Bernard of Clairvaux (trans. Conrad Greenia).
3. J.S.M Ward, Freemasonry And The Ancient Gods, 1921
4. Paul Jacobsthal, Early Celtic Art, Clarendon Press, 1944.
5. . Mary Blackwell Sterling, The Story of Parzival the Templar (Retold from Wolfram Von Eschenbach), New York, E P Dutton & Company, 1911.
6. From the Lecture: ‘Concerning The Lost Temple And How It Is To Be Restored’, Berlin, 22nd May 1905.
The above is an edited version of The Knights Templar – Separating Fact from Fiction which appeared in Vol. XXXI (no. 2) of Diamond Fire magazine. Diamond Fire can be found on Facebook.
Ellen Lloyd - AncientPages.com - An intriguing stone structure in Newport, Rhode Island, has been the subject of much controversy and debate.
Standing in the city's heart, there is a 28-foot tower that is just as impressive as mysterious.
No one knows who built the tower or when it was constructed. Several theories have been put forward. Some have suggested the tower was built by the Vikings. Others maintain it’s a legacy of the Knights Templar.
The tower has also been said to be the work of Freemasons. Native Americans, Chinese explorers, and Celtshave also been credited with its construction. Despite all guesses and speculations, many still think the tower’s existence is a real scientific enigma.
Newport Tower - Image credit: Wikipedia
According to the mainstream theory, the Newport Tower was built in the mid-17th century as a windmill. In 1948, the Society for American Archaeology investigated the tower, and scientists concluded that all artifacts discovered at the site were from the 17th century.
Newport Tower And Its Astronomical Alignments With Planet Venus
In 20018, forensic geologist Scott Wolter established that the Newport Tower’s construction was completed long before Christopher Columbus reached the New World.
This conclusion was controversial, and many scientists are still upset by Wolter’s theory.
'Leif Erikson Discovers America' by Hans Dahl (1849-1937). Credit: Public Domain
When Wolter investigated the structure, he discovered that Venus alignments are captured in the tower, providing evidence consistent with medieval Cistercian/Templar construction practices that reflect, in part, their religious ideology.
“The capturing of astronomical alignments of the Sun, Moon, and Venus in Western European standing stone sites and churches allowed the builders to use these structures as clocks and calendars, and for determining longitude (using solar and lunar eclipses) and latitude". 1
Did Vikings Or Ancient Chinese Build Newport Tower?
Historian Gavin Menzies argues that in 1421, Chinese sailors built the tower as either a lighthouse or an observatory. According to Menzies, at Newport, the expedition commanded by Admiral Zhou Wen was forced to stop. There, they stayed long enough to regroup their fleet and build a lighthouse. This structure, in his view, resembles a Song Dynasty lighthouse design from the Fijian province in southern China. His theory has not gained many followers and has been rejected by most scientists.
In 1837, Danish archaeologist Carl Christian Rafn published a book named Antiquitates Americanæ in which he proposed a Viking origin for the tower. Rafn partly based on his research of the inscriptions on the Dighton Rock near the mouth of the Taunton River. Rafn became convinced it was a Norse structure built by medieval Vikings who regularly crossed the North Atlantic in open boats.
Does The Newport Tower Have Masonic Roots?
Danish researcher Jorgen Siemonsen suggests the Newport Tower is the work of Freemasons. According to Siemonsen circumstantial evidence points toward the fledgling Freemason movement in Rhode Island and a well-connected, English-trained architect who found work among the rich and famous of Colonial Newport.
That architect, Peter Harrison, laid out an octagon summer house in the mid-1700s for Abraham Redwood, a wealthy Newport merchant, Siemonsen said. That geometric form, closely associated with the Freemasons, is mimicked in the eight pillars of the tower, a little more than a block away, that Siemonsen speculated Harrison also designed.
High-precision test of general relativity by the Cassini space probe (artist's impression)
Gravitational time dilation is a phenomenon predicted by the theory of general relativity whereby time passes more slowly in regions of lower gravitational potential. Scientists used the lander to test this hypothesis, by sending radio signals to the lander on Mars, and instructing the lander to send back signals, in cases which sometimes included the signal passing close to the Sun. Scientists found that the observed Shapiro delays of the signals matched the predictions of general relativity.[31]
New International Version It is as if the dew of Hermon were falling on Mount Zion. For there the LORD bestows his blessing, even life forevermore.
New Living Translation Harmony is as refreshing as the dew from Mount Hermon that falls on the mountains of Zion. And there the LORD has pronounced his blessing, even life everlasting.
English Standard Version It is like the dew of Hermon, which falls on the mountains of Zion! For there the LORD has commanded the blessing, life forevermore.
Berean Standard Bible It is like the dew of Hermon falling on the mountains of Zion. For there the LORD has bestowed the blessing of life forevermore.
King James Bible As the dew of Hermon, and as the dew that descended upon the mountains of Zion: for there the LORD commanded the blessing, even life for evermore.
New King James Version It is like the dew of Hermon, Descending upon the mountains of Zion; For there the LORD commanded the blessing— Life forevermore.
New American Standard Bible It is like the dew of Hermon Coming down upon the mountains of Zion; For the LORD commanded the blessing there—life forever.
NASB 1995 It is like the dew of Hermon Coming down upon the mountains of Zion; For there the LORD commanded the blessing— life forever.
NASB 1977 It is like the dew of Hermon, Coming down upon the mountains of Zion; For there the LORD commanded the blessing—life forever.
Legacy Standard Bible It is like the dew of Hermon Coming down upon the mountains of Zion; For there, Yahweh commanded the blessing—life forever.
Amplified Bible It is like the dew of [Mount] Hermon Coming down on the hills of Zion; For there the LORD has commanded the blessing: life forevermore.
Christian Standard Bible It is like the dew of Hermon falling on the mountains of Zion. For there the LORD has appointed the blessing — life forevermore.
Holman Christian Standard Bible It is like the dew of Hermon falling on the mountains of Zion. For there the LORD has appointed the blessing— life forevermore.
American Standard Version Like the dew of Hermon, That cometh down upon the mountains of Zion: For there Jehovah commanded the blessing, Even life for evermore.
Contemporary English Version It is like the dew from Mount Hermon, falling on Zion's mountains, where the LORD has promised to bless his people with life forevermore.
English Revised Version Like the dew of Hermon, that cometh down upon the mountains of Zion: for there the LORD commanded the blessing, even life for evermore.
GOD'S WORD® Translation It is like dew on [Mount] Hermon, dew which comes down on Zion's mountains. That is where the LORD promised the blessing of eternal life.
Good News Translation It is like the dew on Mount Hermon, falling on the hills of Zion. That is where the LORD has promised his blessing--life that never ends.
International Standard Version It is like the dew of Hermon falling on Zion's mountains. For there the LORD commanded his blessing— life everlasting.
Majority Standard Bible It is like the dew of Hermon falling on the mountains of Zion. For there the LORD has bestowed the blessing of life forevermore.
NET Bible It is like the dew of Hermon, which flows down upon the hills of Zion. Indeed that is where the LORD has decreed a blessing will be available--eternal life.
New Heart English Bible like the dew of Hermon, that comes down on the hills of Zion: for there the LORD gives the blessing, even life forevermore.
Webster's Bible Translation As the dew of Hermon, and as the dew that descended upon the mountains of Zion: for there the LORD commanded the blessing, even life for ever.
World English Bible like the dew of Hermon, that comes down on the hills of Zion; for there Yahweh gives the blessing, even life forever more.
Literal Translations
Literal Standard Version As dew of Hermon—That comes down on hills of Zion, "" For there YHWH commanded the blessing—Life for all time!
Young's Literal Translation As dew of Hermon -- That cometh down on hills of Zion, For there Jehovah commanded the blessing -- Life unto the age!
Smith's Literal Translation As the dew of Hermon coming down upon the mountains of Zion: for there Jehovah commanded the blessing, life even forever.
Catholic Translations
Douay-Rheims Bible as the dew of Hermon, which descendeth upon mount Sion. For there the Lord hath commandeth blessing, and life for evermore.
Catholic Public Domain Version It is like the dew of Hermon, which descended from mount Zion. For in that place, the Lord has commanded a blessing, and life, even unto eternity.
New American Bible Like dew of Hermon coming down upon the mountains of Zion. There the LORD has decreed a blessing, life for evermore!
New Revised Standard Version It is like the dew of Hermon, which falls on the mountains of Zion. For there the LORD ordained his blessing, life forevermore.
Translations from Aramaic
Lamsa Bible Like the dew of Hermon that falls upon the mount of Zion; for there the LORD commanded the blessing, even life for evermore.
Peshitta Holy Bible Translated Like the dew of Hermon that descends upon the mountain of Zion, because there LORD JEHOVAH commanded the blessing and the Life unto eternity.
OT Translations
JPS Tanakh 1917 Like the dew of Hermon, That cometh down upon the mountains of Zion; For there the LORD commanded the blessing, Even life for ever.
Brenton Septuagint Translation As the dew of Aermon, that comes down on the mountains of Sion: for there, the Lord commanded the blessing, even life for ever.
New International Version It is as if the dew of Hermon were falling on Mount Zion. For there the LORD bestows his blessing, even life forevermore.
New Living Translation Harmony is as refreshing as the dew from Mount Hermon that falls on the mountains of Zion. And there the LORD has pronounced his blessing, even life everlasting.
English Standard Version It is like the dew of Hermon, which falls on the mountains of Zion! For there the LORD has commanded the blessing, life forevermore.
Berean Standard Bible It is like the dew of Hermon falling on the mountains of Zion. For there the LORD has bestowed the blessing of life forevermore.
King James Bible As the dew of Hermon, and as the dew that descended upon the mountains of Zion: for there the LORD commanded the blessing, even life for evermore.
New King James Version It is like the dew of Hermon, Descending upon the mountains of Zion; For there the LORD commanded the blessing— Life forevermore.
New American Standard Bible It is like the dew of Hermon Coming down upon the mountains of Zion; For the LORD commanded the blessing there—life forever.
NASB 1995 It is like the dew of Hermon Coming down upon the mountains of Zion; For there the LORD commanded the blessing— life forever.
NASB 1977 It is like the dew of Hermon, Coming down upon the mountains of Zion; For there the LORD commanded the blessing—life forever.
Legacy Standard Bible It is like the dew of Hermon Coming down upon the mountains of Zion; For there, Yahweh commanded the blessing—life forever.
Amplified Bible It is like the dew of [Mount] Hermon Coming down on the hills of Zion; For there the LORD has commanded the blessing: life forevermore.
Christian Standard Bible It is like the dew of Hermon falling on the mountains of Zion. For there the LORD has appointed the blessing — life forevermore.
Holman Christian Standard Bible It is like the dew of Hermon falling on the mountains of Zion. For there the LORD has appointed the blessing— life forevermore.
American Standard Version Like the dew of Hermon, That cometh down upon the mountains of Zion: For there Jehovah commanded the blessing, Even life for evermore.
Contemporary English Version It is like the dew from Mount Hermon, falling on Zion's mountains, where the LORD has promised to bless his people with life forevermore.
English Revised Version Like the dew of Hermon, that cometh down upon the mountains of Zion: for there the LORD commanded the blessing, even life for evermore.
GOD'S WORD® Translation It is like dew on [Mount] Hermon, dew which comes down on Zion's mountains. That is where the LORD promised the blessing of eternal life.
Good News Translation It is like the dew on Mount Hermon, falling on the hills of Zion. That is where the LORD has promised his blessing--life that never ends.
International Standard Version It is like the dew of Hermon falling on Zion's mountains. For there the LORD commanded his blessing— life everlasting.
Majority Standard Bible It is like the dew of Hermon falling on the mountains of Zion. For there the LORD has bestowed the blessing of life forevermore.
NET Bible It is like the dew of Hermon, which flows down upon the hills of Zion. Indeed that is where the LORD has decreed a blessing will be available--eternal life.
New Heart English Bible like the dew of Hermon, that comes down on the hills of Zion: for there the LORD gives the blessing, even life forevermore.
Webster's Bible Translation As the dew of Hermon, and as the dew that descended upon the mountains of Zion: for there the LORD commanded the blessing, even life for ever.
World English Bible like the dew of Hermon, that comes down on the hills of Zion; for there Yahweh gives the blessing, even life forever more.
Literal Translations
Literal Standard Version As dew of Hermon—That comes down on hills of Zion, "" For there YHWH commanded the blessing—Life for all time!
Young's Literal Translation As dew of Hermon -- That cometh down on hills of Zion, For there Jehovah commanded the blessing -- Life unto the age!
Smith's Literal Translation As the dew of Hermon coming down upon the mountains of Zion: for there Jehovah commanded the blessing, life even forever.
Catholic Translations
Douay-Rheims Bible as the dew of Hermon, which descendeth upon mount Sion. For there the Lord hath commandeth blessing, and life for evermore.
Catholic Public Domain Version It is like the dew of Hermon, which descended from mount Zion. For in that place, the Lord has commanded a blessing, and life, even unto eternity.
New American Bible Like dew of Hermon coming down upon the mountains of Zion. There the LORD has decreed a blessing, life for evermore!
New Revised Standard Version It is like the dew of Hermon, which falls on the mountains of Zion. For there the LORD ordained his blessing, life forevermore.
Translations from Aramaic
Lamsa Bible Like the dew of Hermon that falls upon the mount of Zion; for there the LORD commanded the blessing, even life for evermore.
Peshitta Holy Bible Translated Like the dew of Hermon that descends upon the mountain of Zion, because there LORD JEHOVAH commanded the blessing and the Life unto eternity.
OT Translations
JPS Tanakh 1917 Like the dew of Hermon, That cometh down upon the mountains of Zion; For there the LORD commanded the blessing, Even life for ever.
Brenton Septuagint Translation As the dew of Aermon, that comes down on the mountains of Sion: for there, the Lord commanded the blessing, even life for ever.
John 1:1-2:1 symbolize the first week of creation which ended on the 7th day with the wedding of Adam and Eve. John's week ends with the wedding in Cana.
Day #1
1:23-28 "This was the witness of John, when the Jews sent to him priests and Levites from Jerusalem..." "This happened at Bethany, on the far side of the Jordan, where John was baptizing."
Day #2
1:29-34 "The next day..." "I have seen and I testify that he is the Son of God."
Day #3
1:35-42 "The next day..." "You Simon son of John; you are to be called Cephas-which means Rock."
Day #4
1:43-51 "The next day..." "...you will see heaven open and the angels of God ascending and descending over the Son of man."
Day #5-6
Day #7
2:1 "On the third day"...[from the last day which was day 4] there was a wedding at Cana in Galilee."
Jesus identifies Himself with the significant and symbolic words: I AM, ego ami, which reminds us of Yahweh's revelation of Himself to Moses3 times as I AM in Exodus 3:13-14. In John's Gospel Jesus will use these words 26 times and in 7 different metaphors [each used with a predicate nominative]:
St. John will also record four "I AM" statements in which Jesus does not use a predicate nominative:
Jesus' "I AM" statements with and without the predicate nominative in St. John's Gospel
"I AM" with predicate nominative
"I AM" without predicate nominative
1. 6:35
"I AM the bread of life"
1. 8:24
"...if you do not believe that I AM, you will die in your sins."
2. 8:12
"I AM the light of the world"
2. 8:28
When you have lifted up the Son of man, then you will know that I AM (He)*
3. 10:7
"I AM the gate for the sheep"
3. 8:58
"In all truth (Amen, amen) I tell you, before Abraham ever was, I AM."
4. 10:11
"I AM the good shepherd"
4. 13:19
"I tell you this now, before it happens, so that when it does happen you may believe that I AM (He)*"
5. 11:25
"I AM the resurrection and the life"
6. 14:6
"I AM the way and the truth and the life"
7. 15:1
"I AM the true vine"
John’s Disciples Follow Jesus (THIRD DAY)
35 The next day John was there again with two of his disciples.36 When he saw Jesus passing by, he said, “Look, the Lamb of God!”
37 When the two disciples heard him say this, they followed Jesus.38 Turning around, Jesus saw them following and asked, “What do you want?”
They said, “Rabbi” (which means “Teacher”), “where are you staying?”
39 “Come,” he replied, “and you will see.”
So they went and saw where he was staying, and they spent that day with him. It was about four in the afternoon.
40 Andrew, Simon Peter’s brother, was one of the two who heard what John had said and who had followed Jesus.41 The first thing Andrew did was to find his brother Simon and tell him, “We have found the Messiah” (that is, the Christ).42 And he brought him to Jesus.
Jesus looked at him and said, “You are Simon son of John. You will be called Cephas” (which, when translated, is Peter[g]).
Jesus Calls Philip and Nathanael
43 The next day Jesus decided to leave for Galilee. Finding Philip, he said to him, “Follow me.”
44 Philip, like Andrew and Peter, was from the town of Bethsaida.45 Philip found Nathanael and told him, “We have found the one Moses wrote about in the Law, and about whom the prophets also wrote—Jesus of Nazareth, the son of Joseph.”
46 “Nazareth! Can anything good come from there?” Nathanael asked.
“Come and see,” said Philip.
47 When Jesus saw Nathanael approaching, he said of him, “Here truly is an Israelite in whom there is no deceit.”
48 “How do you know me?” Nathanael asked.
Jesus answered, “I saw you while you were still under the fig tree before Philip called you.”
49 Then Nathanael declared, “Rabbi, you are the Son of God; you are the king of Israel.”
50 Jesus said, “You believe[h] because I told you I saw you under the fig tree. You will see greater things than that.”51 He then added, “Very truly I tell you,[i] you[j] will see ‘heaven open, and the angels of God ascending and descending on’[k] the Son of Man.”
The Empty Tomb
20 Early on the first day of the week, while it was still dark, Mary Magdalene went to the tomb and saw that the stone had been removed from the entrance.2 So she came running to Simon Peter and the other disciple, the one Jesus loved, and said, “They have taken the Lord out of the tomb, and we don’t know where they have put him!”
3 So Peter and the other disciple started for the tomb.4 Both were running, but the other disciple outran Peter and reached the tomb first.5 He bent over and looked in at the strips of linen lying there but did not go in.6 Then Simon Peter came along behind him and went straight into the tomb. He saw the strips of linen lying there,7 as well as the cloth that had been wrapped around Jesus’ head. The cloth was still lying in its place, separate from the linen.8 Finally the other disciple, who had reached the tomb first, also went inside. He saw and believed.9 (They still did not understand from Scripture that Jesus had to rise from the dead.)10 Then the disciples went back to where they were staying.
Jesus Appears to Mary Magdalene
11 Now Mary stood outside the tomb crying. As she wept, she bent over to look into the tomb12 and saw two angels in white, seated where Jesus’ body had been, one at the head and the other at the foot.
13 They asked her, “Woman, why are you crying?”
“They have taken my Lord away,” she said, “and I don’t know where they have put him.”14 At this, she turned around and saw Jesus standing there, but she did not realize that it was Jesus.
15 He asked her, “Woman, why are you crying? Who is it you are looking for?”
Thinking he was the gardener, she said, “Sir, if you have carried him away, tell me where you have put him, and I will get him.”
16 Jesus said to her, “Mary.”
She turned toward him and cried out in Aramaic, “Rabboni!” (which means “Teacher”).
17 Jesus said, “Do not hold on to me, for I have not yet ascended to the Father. Go instead to my brothers and tell them, ‘I am ascending to my Father and your Father, to my God and your God.’”
18 Mary Magdalene went to the disciples with the news: “I have seen the Lord!” And she told them that he had said these things to her.
Jesus Appears to His Disciples
19 On the evening of that first day of the week, when the disciples were together, with the doors locked for fear of the Jewish leaders, Jesus came and stood among them and said, “Peace be with you!”20 After he said this, he showed them his hands and side. The disciples were overjoyed when they saw the Lord.
Mars is the fourth planet from the Sun, orbiting between Earth and the Asteroid Belt and Jupiter. It has been nicknamed "The Red Planet" because of its red color due to the rusted iron on its surface. It is the third smallest planet in the solar system after Pluto and Mercury. It was named after the Roman God of War. It has only 33% of gravity on Earth, this means an astronaut on Mars can jump higher than a human jumping on a trampoline on Earth. It has two moons named Deimos and Phobos, which unlike Earth's Moon, are shaped like a pair of potatoes and are very tiny. There are currently 7 man-made spacecrafts on or orbiting Mars. Five are orbiting around the planet, and two rovers on the surface. It is the second most known planet to humans after Earth. Mars is also similar to Earth in many ways; it has a similar axial tilt for seasons, polar ice caps, and a daily rotation that's only slightly slower. Mars is also home to the highest mountain and largest volcano in the solar system: Olympus Mons. It's as big as the state of Arizona and three times taller than Mount Everest, the tallest mountain on Earth. Mars has massive sandstorms that can last for months and cover most of the planet. Mars has ice water underneath its surface, which could hint that Mars used to have life on it Billions of years ago.
The Viking Relativity ExperimentMeasurements of the round-trip time of flight of radio signals transmitted from the earth to the Viking spacecraft are being analyzed to test the predictions of Einstein's theory of general relativity. According to this theory the signals will be delayed by up to approximately 250 microsec owing to the direct effect of solar gravity on the propagation. A very preliminary qualitative analysis of the Viking data obtained near the 1976 superior conjunction of Mars indicates agreement with the predictions to within the estimated uncertainty of 0.5%.
Radio Data Using Vikings on Mars Further Confirm Einstein Theory
By Credit...The New York Times ArchivesEstimated Delay of Waves
Results of the experiment were reported at a news conference held at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Pasadena, Calif. The Viking 1 and 2 spacecraft are being controlled there.
The experiment was conducted last Nov. 25, Thanksgiving Day, at the time of solar conjunction. At that time, Mars moved behind the sun in relation to Earth, causing a total blackout of communications between the Vikings and Earth.
But just before and after the blackout, radio signals were transmitted from antennaes at Goldstone, Calif., and Canberra, Australia, to both of the Viking orbiters and landers and then from the spacecraft back to Earth. The round‐trip travel times of the signals were carefully clocked. The transmissions were repeated frequently to check for accuracy.
The results, Dr. Shapiro said, were “in very good agreement with the theory of general relativity.”
Not that he expected to prove Einstein wrong. Previous tests using spacecraft communications systems tended to confirm the theory, but the Viking test is considered twice as accurate, or more, than the previous ones.
In a telephone interview after the conference, Dr. Shapiro said:
“I would have been very surprised Einstein was wrong. But one just can't take theories for granted. Physics is an experimental approach to nature. Einstein came along to explain deviations in Newton's theory of gravity. And at some level of probing we may find Einstein's theory will break down and no longer be a totally adequate theory of the way nature behaves.”
I write about physics, science, academia, and pop culture.
Sep 30, 2015,10:51am EDT
Updated Sep 30, 2015, 03:56pm EDT
This article is more than 9 years old.
The dominant science news story of the moment is the latest discovery of water on Mars, which is fortuitously timed to coincide with the release of the movie The Martian this week. A little over a month from now, the big story will be the 100th anniversary of Einstein's completion of General Relativity. These might not seem like they have much to do with each other, but in fact, Mars missions have a closer connection to relativity than you might think.
John Grunsfeld, associate administrator at NASA's Science Mission Directorate, speaks with... [+]
General relativity famously involves the warping of space and time by gravity, and it was observations during a 1919 eclipse showing the bending of light that catapulted Einstein to fame. Stars near the disk of the Sun had their apparent position (relative to stars farther from the Sun) shifted slightly, as the rays that passed close to the Sun were deflected by its warping of spacetime. The measured deflection agreed nicely with Einstein's prediction, and the rest is one of the great hyperbolic headlines is history.
Of course, relativity makes lots of predictions about what should happen near a massive object like the Sun, and the bending of starlight only tests one. Another thing that ought to happen is a slight "stretching" of space-- which is why discussions of relativity almost always include stretched rubber sheets. The distance between two points in space will be slightly longer along a path that passes close to the Sun than along one that never goes near it.
Embedding diagrams showing the spacetime distortion in the vicinity of a massive object, and the... [+]
This is kind of a difficult thing to get your head around, but like everything else, it comes back to the fact that keeping the laws of physics consistent regardless of how you're moving requires the mixing of space and time. In special relativity, what one observer sees as purely a distance in space, somebody moving at constant speed relative to them will see as a mix of space and time-- the position of the two endpoints is measured at two slightly different times. This is the root of most of the "paradoxes" of relativity. The exact mix of space and time depends on the speed of the observer, and the equations of relativity tell you how to calculate that.
General relativity tells us that the exact mix of space and time for a particular measurement also depends on the presence of gravity. What an observer near the Sun sees as purely a distance in space will look, from far away, like a mix of space and time. This mixing changes the result for distance measurements.
The Viking spacecraft arrived at Mars in the summer of 1976 and passed through superior conjunction on November 25, as Mars passed directly behind the Sun as seen from Earth. This provided researchers the opportunity to use the spacecraft in an experiment to test general relativity.
This image shows the surface of Mars looking across the Viking 2 Lander. (Source: NASA)
After completing the primary missions, the Viking continuation mission objectives included a radio science solar conjunction relativity experiment. Scientists began an experiment that used the landers and orbiters as transponders, sending radio signals to the lander on Mars and instructing the lander to the return signals. The round-trip travel times of the radio signals going from Earth to the Viking landers and orbiters were measured.
Using dual-band, one-way ranging allowed estimation of the contribution of the solar-corona plasma to the echo delays obtained from ranging to the spacecraft.
The data confirmed the Shapiro time delay effect, which states that radar signals passing near a massive object take slightly longer to travel to a target and longer to return than they would if the mass of the object were not present.
Published by Albert Einstein in 1916, the general theory of relativity predicted that the round-trip or echo delays of light signals traveling between the Earth and Mars would be increased by the direct effect of solar gravity. The theory included gravitational time dilation, where time passes differently in regions of different gravitational potential.
NASA has continued to test general relativity, most recently with the Cassini space probe (see a NASA artist rending of its testing at right) and Gravity Probe B, which also confirmed the theory.
For more moments in tech history, see this blog. EDN strives to be historically accurate with these postings. Should you see an error, please notify us.
Editor’s note: This article was originally posted on November 25, 2013 and edited on November 25, 2019.
Gravity On Mars: Help Or Hindrance In Colonization?
23rd Nov 2023
SHARE TO:
Gravity is a fundamental characteristic of planets and other celestial bodies that has a significant impact on life and physical phenomena. In the next decade, humanity is going to colonize the Moon, and after that, the Red Planet. In this article, we will explore gravity on Mars and its impact on humans. But first, let’s define the concept itself.
What Is Gravity?
Gravity (from the Latin gravis, “heavy”) is the universal fundamental interaction between material bodies with mass. In other words, any matter has a gravitational attraction that is proportional to its mass and distance to it. The greater the mass of an object and the closer it is, the greater its gravitational force.
Since the Earth is the most massive object near us (1.317e+25 pounds), all bodies and objects are attracted to it. For example, apples fall to the ground instead of getting attracted to a person’s head. The apple that fell on Newton’s head still fell to the ground later. The gravitational force with which the Earth attracts other bodies to itself is called gravity. The force of gravity is measured by the formula: F = m ⋅ g, where ‘m’ is the mass of the body, and ‘g’ is the gravitational acceleration — a uniformly accelerated motion that all bodies acquire in a vacuum under the influence of gravity near the surface, regardless of their mass.
Free fall acceleration on the Earth’s surface is a constant value that equals 9.8 m/s². This means that when a body is in a free fall, its speed changes by 9.8 m/s in one second. If a body moves vertically upward, its speed decreases by 9.8 m/s in 1 second. If the body moves vertically downward, then the speed increases by 9.8 m/s in 1 second. The gravitational acceleration experienced on the surface of an astronomical or other object is also called surface gravity. So, let’s learn what the surface gravity of Mars is.
How Does Gravity On Mars Compare To Earth, Moon And Venus?
How to calculate your weight on other planets.
If we take g on Earth as 100%, then on Venus, the surface gravity will be 91%, on the Moon — 16.6%, and on Mars — 38%. That is, if you weigh, say, 200 pounds on Earth, then on Venus you would weigh 182 pounds, on Mars — 76 pounds, and on the Moon only — 38! Remember how easily the Apollo astronauts jumped on the Moon even though their spacesuits weighed 130 pounds!
Why Is Mars’ Gravity So Low?
Gravity on different planets and moons depends on their mass and radius square. The greater the mass of the planet and the closer you are to its centre, the stronger the gravity and vice versa. Astronomical objects have different masses and radii, so their g value is also different.
The mass of Mars is approximately 0.107 that of Earth, or approximately 1.523 x 10^23 pounds. The radius of Mars is 2,106 miles, which is almost half that of Earth (3,959 miles). That’s why Mars’s surface gravity is so low.
Would You Fall Faster On Mars?
Since the acceleration of gravity on Mars is almost three times less than on Earth, you might think that you will fall to the Red Planet much more slowly because the gravity of Mars will not pull you as strongly as the Earth’s gravity. But let’s recall that the acceleration of gravity is calculated for bodies in a vacuum and does not take into account the height of the fall and… air resistance. The density of the Martian atmosphere is only 20 grams per cubic meter, which is 61 times less than the density of the Earth’s atmosphere (1.225 kilograms per cubic meter). In other words, the atmospheric resistance on Mars is so low that your final fall speed will be over five times higher than on Earth. Future colonists will need to carefully consider the design of the ship so that it does not crash on the surface at landing.
Is There Enough Gravity On Mars To Walk?
Yes. Even though on Mars, you will weigh almost three times less than on Earth, this disadvantage will be compensated by the spacesuit weight. Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin walked on the Moon with ease, even though there was even less gravity there. In general, you don’t need to be afraid. You’ll have your feet firmly planted on the Red Planet’s surface, and the only thing you’ll need to watch out for is where you step.
Could I Run Faster On Mars?
Running on Mars. Credit: adme.media
In theory — yes, but there are some other factors to consider. On Earth, marathon speed is 6 miles, and the maximum speed that professional runners can achieve is 27 miles! If we compare gravity on Mars and Earth, then these indicators can be multiplied by 2.7 times. However, on Mars, you won’t be able to run in shorts, a T-shirt, and Nike Air Jordans! There, you will have a heavy spacesuit and boots, protecting you from the harsh conditions of the Martian atmosphere and landscape.
As soon as you step on the surface of the Red Planet, you will see it for yourself! The surface is covered with rust-coloured dust. The dust layer thickness may vary in different places, but on average, it is about two metres! The same fine dust flies in the air, occasionally creating dust storms, the most powerful of which can even be seen from Earth. Let’s agree, this can make running so much more difficult.
Is Mars Gravity Survivable?
Mars colony, concept Credit: Getty Images/e71lena
Let’s imagine that we landed safely and even managed to walk on the surface of the Red Planet. Can you survive on Mars in low gravity? Of course, it won’t kill you instantly, but it can have long-term health effects such as bone loss, muscle atrophy, cardiovascular problems, vision problems, and swelling. Astronauts face most of these problems after a long stay on the ISS, and yet, the gravity there is only 12% lower than Earth’s. By the way, read how space medicine fights low-gravity disease.
All in all, to survive on Mars, you will have to try very hard. Astronauts going to Mars will have to exercise regularly and take extra measures to maintain their physical health; technicians and engineers will have to develop special spacesuits that minimize the effect Mars gravity has on humans, as well as create residential complexes with life support systems that replicate terrestrial living conditions to a maximum.
Conclusion
So, we found out that Mars’s gravity is lower than Earth’s, but it allows people to survive and carry out basic vital activities. But there are a couple of nuances. Studying the effects of low gravity on human health and capabilities is an important goal for future missions to Mars and long-term housing on this planet.
Sources:
Kenneth L. Nordtvedt, Alan H. Cook, James E. Faller. “Gravity | Definition, Physics, & Facts”https://www.britannica.com/science/gravity-physics
NASA science. Mars facts.https://mars.nasa.gov/all-about-mars/facts
Here’s How Fast You Could Run on Other Planetshttps://brightside.me/articles/heres-how-fast-you-could-run-on-other-planets-813714/
Chris Denzel. “Gravitational Factors of Our Eight Planets” 2020https://sciencing.com/gravitational-factors-eight-planets-8439815.html
Viking fue la culminación de una serie de misiones para explorar el planeta Marte ; comenzaron en 1964 con el Mariner 4, y continuaron con los sobrevuelos del Mariner 6 y 7 en 1969, y la misión orbital del Mariner 9 en 1971 y 1972.
La Viking fue diseñada para orbitar Marte y aterrizar y operar en la superficie del planeta. Se construyeron dos naves espaciales idénticas, cada una compuesta por un módulo de aterrizaje y un orbitador.
El Centro de Investigación Langley de la NASA en Hampton, Virginia, fue el responsable de la gestión del proyecto Viking desde su inicio en 1968 hasta el 1 de abril de 1978, cuando el Laboratorio de Propulsión a Chorro asumió la tarea. Martin Marietta Aerospace en Denver, Colorado, desarrolló los módulos de aterrizaje. El Centro de Investigación Lewis de la NASA en Cleveland, Ohio, fue el responsable de los vehículos de lanzamiento Titán-Centauro. La tarea inicial del JPL fue el desarrollo de los orbitadores, el seguimiento y la adquisición de datos, y el Centro de Control de Misión y Computación.
La NASA lanzó ambas naves espaciales desde Cabo Cañaveral, Florida: la Viking 1 el 20 de agosto de 1975 y la Viking 2 el 9 de septiembre de 1975. Las sondas fueron esterilizadas antes del lanzamiento para evitar la contaminación de Marte con organismos de la Tierra. La nave espacial pasó casi un año navegando hacia Marte. La Viking 1 alcanzó la órbita de Marte el 19 de junio de 1976; la Viking 2 comenzó a orbitar Marte el 7 de agosto de 1976.
Después de estudiar las fotografías del orbitador, el equipo de certificación del sitio de aterrizaje de Viking consideró que el lugar de aterrizaje original de Viking 1 no era seguro. El equipo examinó los sitios cercanos y Viking 1 aterrizó el 20 de julio de 1976 en la ladera occidental de Chryse Planitia (las llanuras de oro) a 22,3° de latitud norte y 48,0° de longitud.
El equipo de certificación del sitio también decidió que el lugar de aterrizaje planeado para Viking 2 no era seguro después de examinar fotografías de alta resolución. La certificación de un nuevo lugar de aterrizaje se llevó a cabo a tiempo para un aterrizaje en Marte el 3 de septiembre de 1976, en Utopia Planitia, a 47,7° de latitud norte y 225,8° de longitud.
La misión Viking estaba prevista para continuar durante 90 días después del aterrizaje. Cada orbitador y módulo de aterrizaje funcionó mucho más allá de su vida útil prevista. El Viking Orbiter 1 superó los cuatro años de operaciones de vuelo activas en la órbita de Marte.
La misión principal del proyecto Viking finalizó el 15 de noviembre de 1976, 11 días antes de la conjunción superior de Marte (su paso por detrás del Sol). Después de la conjunción, a mediados de diciembre de 1976, los controladores restablecieron las operaciones de telemetría y comando y comenzaron las operaciones de la misión extendida.
La primera nave espacial que dejó de funcionar fue la Viking Orbiter 2 el 25 de julio de 1978; la nave espacial había utilizado todo el gas de su sistema de control de actitud, que mantenía los paneles solares de la nave apuntando al Sol para alimentar el orbitador. Cuando la nave espacial se alejó de la línea del Sol, los controladores del JPL enviaron órdenes para apagar el transmisor de la Viking Orbiter 2.
En 1978, la Viking Orbiter 1 empezó a quedarse sin gas para el control de actitud, pero gracias a una cuidadosa planificación para conservar el suministro restante, los ingenieros descubrieron que era posible seguir adquiriendo datos científicos a un nivel reducido durante otros dos años. El suministro de gas finalmente se agotó y la Viking Orbiter 1 dejó de funcionar el 7 de agosto de 1980, después de 1.489 órbitas alrededor de Marte.
Los últimos datos de la sonda Viking Lander 2 llegaron a la Tierra el 11 de abril de 1980. La sonda Lander 1 realizó su última transmisión a la Tierra el 11 de noviembre de 1982. Los controladores del JPL intentaron, sin éxito, durante otros seis meses y medio recuperar el contacto con la sonda Viking Lander 1. La misión finalizó el 21 de mayo de 1983.
Con una sola excepción (los instrumentos sísmicos), los instrumentos científicos adquirieron más datos de los esperados. El sismómetro de la sonda Viking Lander 1 no funcionó después del aterrizaje y el sismómetro de la sonda Viking Lander 2 detectó solo un evento que pudo haber sido sísmico. Sin embargo, proporcionó datos sobre la velocidad del viento en el lugar de aterrizaje para complementar la información del experimento meteorológico y mostró que Marte tiene un fondo sísmico muy bajo.
Los tres experimentos de biología descubrieron una actividad química inesperada y enigmática en el suelo marciano, pero no aportaron pruebas claras de la presencia de microorganismos vivos en el suelo cercano a los lugares de aterrizaje. Según los biólogos de la misión, Marte se autoesteriliza. Creen que la combinación de la radiación ultravioleta solar que satura la superficie, la extrema sequedad del suelo y la naturaleza oxidante de la química del suelo impiden la formación de organismos vivos en el suelo marciano. La cuestión de si hubo vida en Marte en algún momento del pasado lejano sigue abierta.
Los instrumentos de cromatografía de gases y espectrómetro de masas de los módulos de aterrizaje no detectaron ningún signo de química orgánica en ninguno de los dos lugares de aterrizaje, pero sí proporcionaron un análisis preciso y definitivo de la composición de la atmósfera marciana y encontraron elementos traza no detectados anteriormente. Los espectrómetros de fluorescencia de rayos X midieron la composición elemental del suelo marciano.
La sonda Viking midió las propiedades físicas y magnéticas del suelo. A medida que descendían hacia la superficie, también midieron la composición y las propiedades físicas de la atmósfera superior marciana.
Los dos módulos de aterrizaje monitorizaron continuamente el tiempo en los lugares de aterrizaje. El tiempo en pleno verano marciano era repetitivo, pero en otras estaciones se volvía variable y más interesante. Aparecieron variaciones cíclicas en los patrones meteorológicos (probablemente el paso de ciclones y anticiclones alternos). Las temperaturas atmosféricas en el lugar de aterrizaje sur (Viking Lander 1) fueron tan altas como -14 °C (7 °F) al mediodía, y la temperatura de verano antes del amanecer fue de -77 °C (-107 °F). En contraste, las temperaturas diurnas en el lugar de aterrizaje norte (Viking Lander 2) durante las tormentas de polvo de mediados de invierno variaron tan poco como 4 °C (7 °F) algunos días. La temperatura más baja antes del amanecer fue de -120 °C (-184 °F), aproximadamente el punto de congelación del dióxido de carbono. Una fina capa de escarcha de agua cubría el suelo alrededor de Viking Lander 2 cada invierno.
La presión barométrica varía en cada lugar de aterrizaje cada seis meses, porque el dióxido de carbono, el principal componente de la atmósfera, se congela formando un inmenso casquete polar, alternativamente en cada polo. El dióxido de carbono forma una gran capa de nieve y luego se evapora de nuevo con la llegada de la primavera en cada hemisferio. Cuando el casquete polar sur era más grande, la presión media diaria observada por la Viking Lander 1 era tan baja como 6,8 milibares; en otras épocas del año era tan alta como 9,0 milibares. Las presiones en el lugar de aterrizaje de la Viking Lander 2 fueron de 7,3 y 10,8 milibares. (A modo de comparación, la presión superficial en la Tierra a nivel del mar es de unos 1.000 milibares).
Los vientos marcianos suelen soplar más lentamente de lo esperado. Los científicos habían esperado que alcanzaran velocidades de varios cientos de kilómetros por hora a partir de las tormentas de polvo globales observadas, pero ninguno de los módulos de aterrizaje registró ráfagas superiores a los 120 kilómetros por hora y las velocidades medias fueron considerablemente inferiores. No obstante, los orbitadores observaron más de una docena de pequeñas tormentas de polvo. Durante el primer verano austral se produjeron dos tormentas de polvo globales, con una diferencia de unos cuatro meses terrestres. Ambas tormentas oscurecieron el Sol en los lugares de aterrizaje durante un tiempo y ocultaron la mayor parte de la superficie del planeta a las cámaras de los orbitadores. Los fuertes vientos que provocaron las tormentas soplaron en el hemisferio sur.
Las fotografías tomadas desde los módulos de aterrizaje y los orbitadores superaron las expectativas en cuanto a calidad y calidad. El total superó las 4.500 tomadas desde los módulos de aterrizaje y las 52.000 tomadas desde los orbitadores. Los módulos de aterrizaje proporcionaron la primera mirada de cerca a la superficie, monitorearon las variaciones en la opacidad atmosférica a lo largo de varios años marcianos y determinaron el tamaño medio de los aerosoles atmosféricos. Las cámaras de los orbitadores observaron terrenos nuevos y a menudo desconcertantes y proporcionaron detalles más claros sobre características conocidas, incluidas algunas observaciones en color y estéreo. Los orbitadores de Viking cartografiaron el 97 por ciento de la superficie marciana.
Los cartografiadores térmicos infrarrojos y los detectores de agua atmosférica de los orbitadores adquirieron datos casi a diario, observando el planeta en baja y alta resolución. La enorme cantidad de datos de los dos instrumentos requerirá un tiempo considerable para el análisis y la comprensión de la meteorología global de Marte. Viking también determinó definitivamente que el manto de hielo residual del polo norte (que sobrevive al verano boreal) es hielo de agua, en lugar de dióxido de carbono congelado (hielo seco) como se creía anteriormente.
El análisis de las señales de radio de los módulos de aterrizaje y los orbitadores (incluidos los datos Doppler, de distancia y de ocultación, y la intensidad de la señal del enlace de retransmisión entre el módulo de aterrizaje y el orbitador) proporcionó una variedad de información valiosa.
Otros descubrimientos importantes de la misión Viking incluyen:
La superficie marciana es un tipo de arcilla rica en hierro que contiene una sustancia altamente oxidante que libera oxígeno cuando se moja.
La superficie no contiene moléculas orgánicas detectables a nivel de partes por mil millones: menos, de hecho, que las muestras de suelo traídas de la Luna por los astronautas del Apolo.
El nitrógeno, nunca antes detectado, es un componente significativo de la atmósfera marciana, y el enriquecimiento de los isótopos más pesados de nitrógeno y argón en relación con los isótopos más ligeros implica que la densidad atmosférica era mucho mayor que en el pasado distante.
Los cambios en la superficie marciana se producen con extrema lentitud, al menos en los lugares de aterrizaje de la sonda Viking. Durante la duración de la misión, solo se produjeron unos pocos cambios menores.
La mayor concentración de vapor de agua en la atmósfera se da cerca del borde del casquete polar norte a mediados del verano. Desde el verano hasta el otoño, la concentración máxima se desplaza hacia el ecuador, con una disminución del 30 por ciento en la abundancia máxima. En el verano austral, el planeta está seco, probablemente también como efecto de las tormentas de polvo.
La densidad de ambos satélites de Marte es baja (unos dos gramos por centímetro cúbico), lo que implica que se originaron como asteroides capturados por la gravedad de Marte. La superficie de Fobos está marcada por dos familias de estrías paralelas, probablemente fracturas causadas por un gran impacto que casi pudo haber destrozado a Fobos.
Las mediciones del tiempo de ida y vuelta de las señales de radio entre la Tierra y la sonda Viking, realizadas mientras Marte se encontraba más allá del Sol (cerca de las conjunciones solares), han determinado que el retraso de las señales es causado por el campo gravitatorio del Sol. El resultado confirma la predicción de Albert Einstein con una precisión estimada del 0,1 por ciento, veinte veces mayor que cualquier otra prueba.
La presión atmosférica varía un 30 por ciento durante el año marciano porque el dióxido de carbono se condensa y sublima en los casquetes polares.
La capa norte permanente es hielo de agua; la capa sur probablemente retiene algo de hielo de dióxido de carbono durante el verano.
El vapor de agua es relativamente abundante sólo en el extremo norte durante el verano, pero el agua subterránea (permafrost) cubre gran parte, si no todo, del planeta.
Los hemisferios norte y sur son drásticamente diferentes climáticamente, debido a las tormentas de polvo globales que se originan en el sur en verano.
Tema anterior
![Revelation 1:14 (lsv) - and His head and hairs [were] white, as if ...](https://img2.bibliaya.com/Bibleya/verse/revelation-1-14-lsv.jpg)
![John Grunsfeld, associate administrator at NASA's Science Mission Directorate, speaks with... [+] colleagues at a press conference where NASA announced new findings that provide the 'strongest evidence yet' of salty liquid water currently existing on Mars. (Photo by Win McNamee/Getty Images)](https://imageio.forbes.com/specials-images/imageserve/490420754/640x0.jpg?format=jpg&width=1440)
How to calculate your weight on other planets.
Running on Mars. Credit: adme.media
Mars colony, concept Credit: Getty Images/e71lena