The original Horses inside the St Mark's BasilicaThe replica Horses of Saint Mark
The Horses of Saint Mark (Italian: Cavalli di San Marco), also known as the Triumphal Quadriga or Horses of the Hippodrome of Constantinople, is a set of bronze statues of four horses, originally part of a monument depicting a quadriga (a four-horse carriage used for chariot racing). The horses were placed on the facade, on the loggia above the porch, of St Mark's Basilica in Venice, northern Italy, after the sack and looting of Constantinople in 1204. They remained there until looted by Napoleon in 1797 but were returned in 1815. The sculptures have been removed from the facade and placed in the interior of St Mark's for conservation purposes, with replicas in their position on the loggia.
The sculptures date from classical antiquity. Many scholars believe they were sculpted in the 2nd or 3rd century AD, noting similarities to the Equestrian Statue of Marcus Aurelius in Rome (c. 175 AD).[1] But some say the evident technical expertise and naturalistic rendering of the animals suggest they were made in Classical Greece of the 5th and 4th centuries BC.[2]
In light of their short backs and long legs, it has been argued that they were originally situated above the eye line,[3] probably created to top a triumphal arch or some other grand building. Perhaps commissioned by the Emperor Septimus Severus, they may originally have been made for the Eastern capital of Constantinople, where they were long displayed.[3]
Analysis suggests that the sculptures are at least 96.67% copper,[4] and therefore should be viewed not as made from bronze but of an impure copper. The relatively low tin content increased the casting temperature to 1200–1300 °C.[5] The copper was chosen to give a more satisfactory mercury gilding.
The Return of the Horses of San Marco by Vincenzo Chilone, depicting the return of the horses in 1815.
The horses, along with the quadriga with which they were depicted, were long displayed at the Hippodrome of Constantinople; they may be the "four gilt horses that stand above the Hippodrome" that "came from the island of Chios under Theodosius II" mentioned in the 8th- or early 9th-century Parastaseis syntomoi chronikai.[6] As part of the sack of the capital of the Byzantine Empire in the Fourth Crusade, they were looted by Venetian forces in 1204. That same year, the collars on the four horses were added to obscure where the animals' heads had been severed to allow them to be transported from Constantinople to Venice.[7] Shortly after the Fourth Crusade, DogeEnrico Dandolo sent the horses to Venice, where they were installed on the terrace of the façade of St Mark's Basilica in 1254. Petrarch admired them there.[8]
In 1815, following the final defeat of Napoleon, the horses were returned to Venice by Captain Dumaresq. He had fought at the Battle of Waterloo and was with the Coalition forces in Paris where he was selected, by the Emperor of Austria, to take the horses down from the Arc de Triomphe du Carrousel and return them to St Mark's in Venice. For the skillful manner in which he performed this work, the Emperor gave him a gold snuff box with his initials in diamonds on the lid.[9]
The horses remained in place over St Mark's until the early 1980s, when damage from air pollution led them to be removed and put on display inside the basilica. They were replaced on the loggia with replicas.
Instituida por Orden de SM el Rey D. Fernando VII, el día 24 de marzo de 1815.
La invasión napoleónica en España, no solo supuso un revulsivo interno en la política del Reino de España, sino que llevo las ganas de independencia de los criollos de las tierras de ultramar. Ellos, que eran los descendientes de los españoles que fueron descubriendo y civilizando aquellas tierras, dándoles su cultura y tradiciones, sintieron la falta de atención de la Península en los asuntos americanos, aunque si bien es cierto en modo, tampoco faltaban las ganas de aglutinar el poder ellos solos, dejando de lado a la metrópoli de la que venían todas sus heredades.
El desgobierno que había en España derivado de la Guerra de la independencia, fue utilizado por los separatistas, que se infiltraron en las Juntas autónomas creadas en las provincias españoles de ultramar. Con ello, se inicia una lucha por la independencia, que se alargará hasta finales del siglo XIX.
Al llegar al trono de Fernando VII, hubo que enfrentar a los separatistas. Puso todos los medios para conseguir la permanencia de las provincias bajo soberanía española, y con el ánimo de premiar a los españoles leales a su patria y al Rey, la «acrisolada lealtad, el celo y patriotismo, desprendimiento, valor y otras virtudes que tanto los individuos de la milicia como de todas las clases y jerarquías del Estado han mostrado y mostraren en adelante en favor de la defensa y conservación de aquellos remotos países» Fernando VII crea la REAL ORDEN AMERICANA DE ISABEL LA CATOLICA.
El nombre elegido fue el de su augusta Antepasada, a cuya iniciativa e impronta, se debió el descubrimiento de América. Con el fin de premiar la lealtad de tantos españoles que se mantenían fieles a sus raíces y su patria, y el mérito contratado en favor de la defensa y la conservación de aquellos dominios, crea la Orden, de carácter inicialmente militar, siguiendo la tradición española, bajo la protección de un Santo Patrono, en este caso a Santa Isabel, Reina de Portugal.
En sus primeros Estatutos se establecían tres categorías; Gran cruz, Caballeros de primera y de segunda clase; a todos ellos se les reconocía la nobleza personal.
Fernando VII dio los primeros pasos de la Orden nombrando 15 grandes cruces, 14 caballeros de primera clase y 3 de segunda. Nombró el Capítulo Supremo, presidido por el Duque de San Carlos. En aquella primera reunión, se propuso al Rey el cambio de clases, que quedaría de la siguiente manera: Gran Cruz, Comendador y Caballero. Para los indigenas americanos se estableció la medalla especial.
El Papa Pío VII expedía la bula Víros magnos ín regno, el 26 de mayo de 1816, aprobando y confirmando la nueva Orden Americana, y extendiendo a sus caballeros y ministros las mismas indulgencias y gracias espirituales que a los de la Orden de Carlos III. El 20 de enero de 1816 se escogió para sede de la Orden la iglesia de Santa María la Real de la Almudena.
La orden perdió su sentido inicial desde la perdida de las provincias americanas. Sin fondos y sin sentido, fue cayendo en el ostracismo.
En 1847, se acometió una importante reforma de las Órdenes Reales españolas. Los capítulos solemnes continuaron celebrándose en el reinado de Isabel II. La Real Orden de Isabel la Católica, dejó de denominarse Americana en virtud del Real Decreto de 15 de abril de 1889, y fue considerada la condecoración general y propia del mérito civil, entregándose desde ese momento, a los españoles que se distinguían por sus méritos al servicio de España.
La Real Orden de Isabel la Católica fue la única que no suprimió en 1931. Durante la guerra civil ambos bandos en lucha estuvieron entregando las condecoraciones.
Actualmente, la Orden se rige por el Real Decreto 2395/1998, de 6 de noviembre, mediante el cual han sido derogadas todas las normas anteriores, salvo los estatutos fundacionales. Según su artículo primero, la Real Orden de Isabel la Católica tiene por objeto premiar aquellos comportamientos extraordinarios de carácter civil, realizados por personas españolas y extranjeras, que redunden en beneficio de la Nación, o que contribuyan, de modo relevante, a favorecer las relaciones de amistad y cooperación de la Nación española con el resto de la comunidad internacional.
SM el Rey es el Gran Maestre de la Real Orden, y puede ostentar diariamente las insignias. Su sede y oficinas se encuentran en el Ministerio de Asuntos Exteriores, ya que su Gran Canciller es el Ministro de Asuntos Exteriores, y la Canónica sigue estando en la Catedral de Nuestra Señora de la Almudena.
Las categorías de la Real Orden de Isabel la Católica consta de las siguientes categorías comunes para ambos sexos:
Collar
Placa del Collar
Encomienda (lazo de dama opcional)
Encomienda
Placa de encomienda
Cruz (lazo de dama opcional)
Cruz
Placa de la Cruz
Oficial (lazo de dama opcional)
Oficial
Cruz de plata (lazo de dama opcional)
Cruz de Plata
Medalla de plata (lazo de dama opcional)
Medalla de plata
Medalla de bronce (lazo de dama opcional)
Medalla de bronce
El emblema de la Orden es una cruz de oro coronada con una corona olímpica o de cogollos de olivo, formada de cuatro brazos iguales, esmaltada de color rojo, conforme al pabellón español, e interpoladas con los brazos unas ráfagas de oro; En su centro habrá sobrepuesto un escudo circular en que se verán los esmaltes de las dos columnas y dos globos o mundos, que representarán las Indias, enlazados con una cinta, y cubiertos ambos con una corona imperial, llenando el campo del escudo los rayos de luz, que partiendo de los mismos globos se extienden en todos los sentidos. En su anverso, y sobre campo blanco, se leerá de letra de oro la siguiente leyenda: «A LA LEALTAD ACRISOLADA».
La cruz será la mismo pero en el anverso, con la diferencia de que en él habrá de leerse: «POR ISABEL LA CATÓLICA, FERNANDO VII».
Los collares, son propiedad de la Orden y deben ser devueltos tras el fallecimiento del titular de la mismas.
History. The Order of Isabel the Catholic was instituted by King Ferdinand VII on 14 March 1815. The original statutes of the Order were approved by Royal ...
The order was established on March 14, 1815 by the Spanish King Ferdinand VII in honor of the Queen of Castile Isabella I with the original name "Royal ...
2 oct 2021 — It was created on March 14, 1815 by King Ferdinand VII in honor of Queen Isabella I with the intent of “remembering the firm allegiance to ...
25 may 2023 — ... Isabella the Catholic. This recognition is a distinction of the Spanish State, instituted by King Ferdinand VII on March 14, 1815, with the ...
English: The Order of Isabella the Catholic (Spanish: Orden de Isabel la Católica) is a Spanish civil order granted in recognition of services that benefit the country. The Order is not exclusive to Spaniards, and many foreigners have been awarded it. The Order was created on 14 March 1815 by King Ferdinand VII of Spain in honor of Queen Isabella I of Castile with the name of "Royal and American Order of Isabella the Catholic" with the intent of "rewarding the firm allegiance to Spain and the merits of Spanish citizens and foreigners in good standing with the Nation and especially in those exceptional services provided in pursuit of territories in America and overseas." The Order was reorganized by royal decree on 26 July 1847, as the modern "Royal Order of Isabella the Catholic" with a broader focus than the Americas.
Español: La Real Orden de Isabel la Católica es una condecoración del Reino de España creada por el rey Fernando VII de España el 14 de marzo de 1815, con el nombre de Real y Americana Orden de Isabel la Católica, con el fin de «premiar la lealtad acrisolada y los méritos contraídos en favor de la prosperidad de aquellos territorios», y mediante un Real Decreto del 26 de julio de 1847 la orden tomó el nombre de Real Orden de Isabel la Católica. El último reglamento fue aprobado por Real Decreto en 1998, siendo su función actual "premiar aquellos comportamientos extraordinarios de carácter civil, realizados por personas españolas y extranjeras, que redunden en beneficio de la Nación o que contribuyan, de modo relevante, a favorecer las relaciones de amistad y cooperación de la Nación Española con el resto de la Comunidad Internacional". En la actualidad depende del Ministerio de Asuntos Exteriores de España. El gran maestre de la Orden es el rey de España, mientras que el gran canciller de la Orden es el ministro de Asuntos Exteriores. Todos los títulos de las condecoraciones de la Orden deben llevar las firmas de ambos.
Order of Isabella the Catholic
Spanish civil order granted in recognition of services that benefit the country
This is a main category requiring frequent diffusion and maybe maintenance. As many pictures and media files as possible should be moved into appropriate subcategories.
Subcategories
This category has the following 11 subcategories, out of 11 total.
The Order of Isabella the Catholic (Spanish: Orden de Isabel la Católica) is a Spanish civil order in which membership is given to honor services that benefited the country.
The Order of Isabel the Catholic was instituted by King Ferdinand VII on 14 March 1815. The original statutes of the Order were approved by Royal Decree of 24 March, with membership made in three classes: Grand Cross, and Knights of First and Second Class. Ferdinand VII was declared the Order's Founder, Head, and Sovereign. On 7 October 1816, at the suggestion of the Chapter of the Order, the Knights of the first class were renamed Commanders and the second class were renamed Knights.
By royal decree of 26 July 1847, Isabella II reorganised the four royal orders in Spain: the Order of the Golden Fleece, the Langues of Aragon and Castile of the Order of Saint John of Jerusalem, the Order of Charles III, and the Order of Isabella the Catholic. The latter was reserved to reward exclusively the services rendered in the Overseas territories. The classes of the order became Knight, Commander, Commander by Number, and Grand Cross. The concession and tests of nobility was suppressed in all the Royal Orders. By royal decree of 28 October 1851, no concessions of Grand Cross of any orders were to be made without the proposal of the Council of Ministers and concessions for the lower classes with the proposal of the Secretary of State.
After the establishment of the First Republic, the Order was declared to be extinguished by Decree of 29 March 1873 as deemed to be incompatible with the republican government. Use of the various insignias was allowed to those who possessed them. When King Alfonso XII ascended to the throne, the Order was reestablished by Decree of 7 January 1875.
Coat of arms of Alfonso XIII, with collar and heraldic mantle of the Order.
During the minority of Alfonso XIII, his mother and Regent, Maria Cristina, signed the royal decrees of 15 April 1889 and 25 October 1900. Among other things, they sought to impose entry into the Order by the category of Knight, to prohibit the use of decorations until the corresponding title was obtained, and to ratify the obligation that the Grand Cross be awarded with the agreement of the Council of Ministers and for conferees to be published in the Official Gazette. By Royal Decree of 14 March 1903, the Silver Cross of the Order was created, and by Royal Decree of 15 April 1907, the Silver and Bronze Medals.
In Royal Decree 1118, of 22 June 1927, the superior grade of Knights of the Collar was created, to be awarded to prominent personalities of extraordinary merit. It also provides that women can also be decorated with either the lazo or banda.
The Provisional Government of the Republic, by decree of 24 July 1931, abolished all orders under the Ministry of State, except for the Order of Isabella the Catholic. The regulations approved by decree of 10 October 1931 introduced a new degree: Officer (Oficial). By decree of 8 August 1935, it was established that the first degree in the Order of Isabella the Catholic was that of the Grand Cross, the Collar being reserved exclusively for very exceptional cases.
In 1938, Franco, by decree of 15 June, restored the Order in its traditional meaning: to reward meritorious services rendered to the country by nationals and foreigners. The order's regulations were approved by Decree of 29 September 1938. According to the 1938 regulations, the order consisted of the following grades: Knight of the Collar, Knight Grand Cross, Commander by Number, Commander, Knight, and Silver Cross. Decree 1353/1971, of 5 June, re-incorporated the rank of Officer, placing it between the grades of Knight and Commander. Thus, the Order consisted of the following grades: Knight of the Collar, Knight of the Grand Cross, Banda de Dama (denomination of the Grand Cross when granted to ladies), Commander by Number, Commander, Officer, Knight, Lazo de Dama (the degree of Knight when it is granted to ladies), and Cruz de Plata.
The order's current regulations date from 1998 as approved by Royal Decree 2395/1998, of 6 November. Among its provisions, the categories of Banda de Dama, Cruz de Caballero and Lazo de Dama were repealed to avoid possible interpretations of there being gender discrimination. Notwithstanding this, for aesthetic and functional reasons, the ladies who are decorated use reduced versions of the insignia of each degree of the Order.
The invasion of occupied France on D-Day, June 6, 1944, changed the course of the Second World War. Astronomy played a crucial role in the timing of the event.
This month marks the 75th anniversary of the D‑Day invasion of Normandy, France. But why was June 6th chosen? Astronomy played a role: The Moon and Sun affected the planning and the selection of this date.
Coast Guard Chief Photographer’s Mate Robert F. Sargent captured this famous D Day image of the scene on Omaha Beach at about 7:40 a.m. U.S. Coast Guard, Department of Defense
Did the airborne divisions want the darkness of a new Moon or the brightness of a full Moon when the paratroopers began parachuting into France just after midnight? And how did planners coordinate that lunar phase with the requirement for a low tide near sunrise, so that engineers could destroy exposed beach obstacles before the landing craft of the main assault waves came in?
Invasion of Europe
In the early morning hours of June 6, 1944, the complex operation code-named Overlord began to unfold. The Allies had assembled an armada of 5,000 ships and landing craft carrying 130,000 soldiers across the English Channel to the Normandy beaches. Airborne operations carried a total of 24,000 troops using more than a thousand transports and gliders. Near sunrise, aerial and naval bombardment shook the German coastal strongpoints, and landing craft started the long runs in to the beaches.
Any invasion date in May or June would leave the entire summer for the Allied drive across France and toward the German homeland before bad weather in fall or winter could slow the advance. But the invasion planners later made clear that the selection of June 6th in particular was for astronomical reasons: moonlight and the effects of the lunar phase on the tides came into play. The Allies required a low tide near sunrise, and, on this part of the Normandy coast, such a tide occurs only near the times of either new Moon or full Moon.
Moon, Sun, and Tides
General Dwight D. Eisenhower, the Allied Supreme Commander, realized that preparations were not complete in May and postponed the assault until June. His 1948 book, Crusade in Europe, explained why moonlight and a low tide were important:
...the next combination of moon, tide, and time of sunrise that we considered practicable for the attack occurred on June 5, 6, and 7 …We wanted a moon for our airborne assaults … We had to attack on a relatively low tide because of beach obstacles which had to be removed while uncovered.
Admiral Chester W. Nimitz, in his 1960 memoir The Great Sea War, likewise recalled the significance of the lunar phase and the tide times:
... staff … desired a moonlit night preceding D-day so that the airborne divisions would be able to organize and reach their assigned objectives before sunrise… the tide … must be rising at the time of the initial landings so that the landing craft could unload and retract without danger of stranding…Yet the tide had to be low enough that underwater obstacles could be exposed for demolition parties.
This publicity photograph from the 1962 film, The Longest Day, shows the early assault waves advancing on foot through mined beach obstacles, a mixture of stakes and hedgehogs.
Prime Minister Winston Churchill, in his 1951 book Closing the Ring, stressed the astronomical and tidal factors:
Only on three days in each lunar month were all the desired conditions fulfilled. The first three-day period...was June 5, 6, and 7…If the weather were not propitious on any of those three days, the whole operation would have to be postponed at least a fortnight—indeed, a whole month if we waited for the moon.
The Allies initially intended to invade on June 5th, but bad weather forced a postponement of one day.
Calculating the Effects of Moon and Sun
A nearly full Moon rose 1½ hours before sunset on June 5th, reaching its highest point on June 6th at 1:19 a.m., just as the American airborne assault began. Slanting moonlight illuminated the ground below for the troops of the 82nd and the 101st Airborne as they started dropping from the sky between 1:15 and 1:30 a.m., following pathfinders who had jumped about an hour earlier. These times are expressed in British Double Summer Time (two hours ahead of Greenwich Mean Time), as employed by the Allied invasion forces.
Brigadier General James Gavin of the 82nd Airborne provided an eyewitness account in a 1947 monograph titled Airborne Warfare. As his C‑47 aircraft approached a drop zone west of Sainte-Mère-Église, Gavin could clearly see the ground below:
…the roads and the small clusters of houses in the Normandy villages stood out sharply in the moonlight.
Importance of the Tides
The German defenders had employed several types of mined obstacles on the beaches, as shown in the accompanying illustrations.
General Omar Bradley described in his 1951 memoir A Soldier’s Story how the plans for the demolition teams depended on the tides:
At low tide the beach defenses lay exposed … We would assault when a rising tide reached the obstacle line and give the engineers 30 minutes to clear it before the water became too deep. Successive assault waves would then ride the rising tide nearer the sea wall through gaps in the obstacle belt.
Tide Calculations for Omaha Beach
Our Texas State group wrote a computer program to calculate the tide levels at Omaha Beach. The calculated morning tide range was about 18 feet, with a rapid rise from low water at 5:23 a.m. to high water at 10:12 a.m.
The 150mm guns of the German battery at Longues-sur-Mer were located near the coast between Omaha Beach and Gold Beach. Members of the Texas State group pictured here are Laura Bright, Don Olson, and Hannah Reynolds. Russell Doescher
This rapid rise had a significant effect. The initial landings at Omaha Beach took place at 6:30 a.m. Over the next 30 minutes, the water level rose 2.4 feet as the demolition teams struggled to place explosives while the obstacles were still exposed. By 7 a.m. the water level was already rising by one foot every 10 minutes, and that rate only accelerated. Even a small delay had serious consequences. These calculations help explain why demolition crews cleared only five of the planned 16 gaps among the obstacles before the advancing tide forced them to wade ashore.
While tidal and astronomical considerations meant that the date of the Normandy invasion had to fall near a full Moon, its gravitational effects were then responsible for the rapidly rising spring tide. The remaining fields of mined beach obstacles contributed to the loss of momentum of the following assault waves and helped earn Omaha Beach its nickname: “Bloody Omaha.”
D-Day Timetable
The five landing beaches had the code names Utah (American forces), Omaha (American), Gold (British), Juno (Canadian), and Sword (British), in order from west to east. Astronomical calculations are for the Caen Canal and Orne River bridges near Bénouville, France (49° 15' North Latitude, 0° 16' West Longitude), just inland from Sword Beach. The times are expressed in British Double Summer Time (two hours ahead of Greenwich Mean Time), as employed by the Allied invasion forces.
June 5, 1944
8:30 p.m. Moonrise, Moon is 99% lit 10:01 p.m. Sunset
June 6, 1944
12:16 a.m. First British glider lands at the Caen Canal bridge, bright Moon in southeastern sky 12:26 a.m. Radio message sent: British captured the canal bridge and Orne River bridge intact 1:15 a.m. American paratroopers begin to land inland from Utah Beach 1:19 a.m. Lunar transit, Moon at its highest point in the sky for the night 5:17 a.m. Beginning of civil twilight 5:23 a.m. Low water exposes the beach obstacles on Omaha Beach 5:50 a.m. Naval bombardment of Omaha Beach begins 5:57 a.m. Sunrise 6:02 a.m. Moonset, Moon is 99% lit 6:30 a.m. First assault wave lands on Omaha Beach, on a rising tide 7:25 a.m. First assault wave lands on Sword Beach, on a rising tide 10:12 a.m. High water covers Omaha Beach almost to the sea wall 1:00 p.m. Approximate time when Lord Lovat leads British commandos inland from Sword Beach and they link up with the airborne forces at the canal bridge
Moon over Pegasus Bridge
Six hours before the amphibious landings even began, British soldiers carried on gliders had already descended silently from the night skies and landed on French soil. Their objectives were two crucial bridges over two parallel waterways, the Caen Canal and the Orne River, just inland from Sword Beach. A bright Moon was crucial for this assault.
At 10:56 p.m. on June 5th at Tarrant Rushton airfield in England, the engines of the massive Halifax bombers serving as tugs surged from a steady hum to a deafening roar. Within minutes six gliders had been pulled into the air. In the moonlight over England, the aircraft formed up and headed out for the flight over the Channel.
The British employed six Airspeed Horsa gliders to land the assault forces near the Caen Canal and Orne River bridges. This full-size Horsa replica, built according to the original wartime glider plans, was unveiled at the Memorial Pegasus museum in 2004 for the 60th anniversary of D-Day. Amanda Slater
James Wallwork, pilot of the lead glider, realized when his tug had reached France, because in the moonlight he could see the surf breaking on the Normandy coastline. Wallwork recalled how he could see the waterways as the Moon shone from between clouds:
And there are the river and canal like silver ribbons in the moonlight.
With pardonable exaggeration, Wallwork described the moonlit scene as his glider approached the canal bridge objective. (The interview can be seen in the film shown at the Memorial Pegasus museum):
I could see the target. The Moon was on it. I could see the bridge. I could see the whites of their eyes almost.
This aerial photograph shows the Memorial Pegasus museum in the distance, the original 1944 Pegasus Bridge in its permanent position on the museum grounds, and the full size Airspeed Horsa glider replica in the foreground. The landing zone for the three British gliders on D-Day is just visible at the extreme upper right. Michel Dehaye
Wallwork’s glider was the first to land, skidding to a halt near the canal bridge at 12:16 a.m. Two more gliders followed into this landing zone, and the British soldiers quickly overwhelmed the German defenders. The group at the Orne River bridge had similar success, with their descent likewise aided by the moonlight.
The canal bridge became known as “Pegasus Bridge,” a name that refers to the British airborne insignia featuring the mythological “airborne warrior” Bellerophon riding the winged horse Pegasus.
A “Late-rising” Moon?
Many authors writing about D-Day mistakenly imagine that the Allied forces wanted a dark night until the airborne divisions reached their targets. We located the primary source for this mistake in the memoirs of Walter Bedell Smith, one of Eisenhower’s closest aides. Smith’s article for the June 8, 1946, Saturday Evening Post made the erroneous claim that for “the airborne landings … we needed a late-rising full moon, so the pilots could approach their objectives in darkness, but have moonlight to pick out the drop zones.” Cornelius Ryan’s classic 1959 book The Longest Day used Smith as a source, and Ryan wrote that a “critical demand was for a late-rising moon.” A Google search with relevant keywords (D-Day late‑rising Moon) will bring up many subsequent authors who followed Ryan and repeated this unfortunate error regarding a “late‑rising” Moon.
Astronomical calculations show that the Moon was definitely not “late‑rising.” Moonrise actually occurred very early – the Moon had already risen into the sky about 1½ hours before sunset on the preceding day (June 5th). The Moon then remained in the sky during the entire night of June 5th-6th, 1944.
The stone monuments of the American Cemetery at Colleville-sur-Mer dominate the foreground of this aerial photograph. The cemetery is located on a bluff overlooking Omaha Beach and the English Channel, both seen in the background. Michel Dehaye
As the 75th anniversary of D-Day approaches, the commemorations will rightly focus on the heroism of the Allied soldiers, sailors, and airmen who began the liberation of France. Readers of Sky & Telescope can also use this month to recognize the importance of the astronomical factors that determined the date of the invasion and then affected the course of events for both the airborne and amphibious forces on that historic day.
Ayer ya hicimos una breve incursión sobre el Arco del Triunfo del Carrousel. Dejamos en un punto y aparte una explicación más profunda del monumento que lo corona. Allí vemos un carro tirado por cuatro caballos que es escoltado por las alegorías de la Victoria y de la Paz. Pero este monumento no fue siempre el que estuvo allí mirando al frente del Museo del Louvre. Para entender su historia quizá antes tengamos que dar una vuelta por Venecia.
Los cuatro caballos originales de la cuadriga de bronce fueron parte del botín de guerra de Napoleón, y se encontraban en la plaza de la Basílica de San Marco de Venecia. Estos caballos venecianos eran, a su vez, copias de originales griegos de bronce dorado del siglo IV a. C. que venían del Templo del Sol de Corintia.
La cuádriga del Carrousel vista de espalda.
Estas esculturas originales datan de finales de la Antigüedad Clásica y han sido atribuidas al escultor griego Lisipo del siglo IV a.C. Aunque siempre se creía que eran de bronce, los análisis sugieren que están hechas de cobre. Al parecer este material fue escogido para obtener un más satisfactorio dorado. Dados los actuales conocimientos de la tecnología antigua, este método de fabricación sugiere que las piezas son de factura romana en vez de helénico.
Los caballos junto a su cuadriga fueron expuestos en el Hipódromo de Constantinopla durante siglos. En 1204, fueron tomados por las fuerzas venecianas durante el saqueo de la capital bizantina en la Cuarta Cruzada. Lo que ocurrió con el auriga después de la Cuarta Cruzada es desconocido. El Dogo de Venecia Enrico Dandolo envió los caballos a Venecia, donde se instalaron en la terraza de la fachada de la Basílica de San Marcos en 1254.
En 1797, Napoleón tomó los caballos por la fuerza y los llevó a París, donde fueron usados en el diseño del Arco de Triunfo del Carrousel, en ese caso junto a un cuadriga.
En 1815 los caballos fueron devueltos a la Basílica tras la derrota francesa. Permanecieron en la terraza hasta comienzos de la década de 1980, cuando, para evitar daños por la polución del aire y el efecto del excremento de las aves, fueron substituidas por réplicas. Desde entonces, la cuadriga original está expuesta en un Museo dentro de la Basílica.
Los caballos en el Museo de San Marco.
El carro parisino es escoltado por las alegorías de la Victoria y de la Paz, en oro. Se cree comúnmente que la persona que conduce el carro es el emperador en persona. Sin embargo, no es el caso.
En su momento se fabricó una estatua de bronce de «Napoleón triunfador conduciendo el carro de la victoria«, y se la colocó en su lugar correspondiente. Pero el emperador rehusó al final a ver su esfinge en la cumbre de este arco dedicado a la gran armada. Se quitó la estatua en 1812 y el carro se quedó vacío hasta 1828.
La estatua de Napoleón es de bronce dorado y es obra de François Frédéric Lemot. Se encuentra actualmente en el Museo del Louvre, a escasos cincuenta metros de su destino original.
En 1815 los aliados contra Francia ocupan la capital gala y devuelven los caballos a Venecia.
En la galería sobre la portada de la basílica de San Marcos en Venecia hay cuatro grandes esculturas de equinos conocidas popularmente como los Caballos de San Marcos. Estas esculturas son más antiguas que la propia basílica, pues proceden del hipódromo de Constantinopla.
Formaban parte de un monumento escultórico que representaba una cuadriga completa, similar a las que adornaban otros edificios antiguos como por ejemplo el Mausoleo de Halicarnaso. No se sabe exactamente dónde estaba situada esta cuadriga originalmente, pero se cree que debió coronar un arco de triunfo u otro edificio público.
Tampoco hay consenso en la fecha de su creación. Algunos expertos opinan que pueden ser obra de un escultor griego del siglo IV a.C. No obstante, otros tienden a datarlos entre los siglos I y III d.C.
En el Parastaseis syntomoi chronikai, un texto bizantino de finales del siglo VIII a principios del IX d.C. que comenta los monumentos existentes en Constantinopla en esa época, se habla de cuatro caballos dorados que presiden el hipódromo y se añade que vinieron de la isla de Quios en tiempos de Teodosio II.
Según algunas hipótesis podrían proceder de los arcos de triunfo de Nerón o Trajano en Roma, o incluso del mausoleo de Adriano. Las obras de restauración llevadas a cabo entre 1977 y 1981 no revelaron ningún elemento que pueda conducir a una datación precisa.
Lo que sí se sabe es que durante siglos estuvieron en el hipódromo de la capital bizantina, donde los encontraron los cruzados en el año 1204 cuando asaltaron Constantinopla durante la Cuarta Cruzada. El principal contingente cruzado eran 10.000 soldados venecianos bajo el mando del dux Enrico Dandolo, y entre el botín enviado a Venecia se encontraban los caballos.
Para poder transportarlos con facilidad en las galeras venecianas tuvieron que cortar las estatuas a la altura del cuello, por lo que, una vez llegados a Venecia se volvieron a unir añadiendo un collar a cada uno, a modo de banda decorativa, para ocultar los cortes.
Las esculturas están hechas con un bronce cuyo contenido en estaño es muy bajo. Normalmente el bronce antiguo suele tener un 85 por ciento de cobre, un 10 por ciento de estaño y una pequeña cantidad de plomo e impurezas. Los caballos tienen casi un 98 por ciento de cobre, y solo un 1 por ciento de estaño y otro 1 por ciento de plomo, una técnica especialmente extendida durante el Imperio Romano.
Las esculturas originales, hoy expuestas en el museo de la catedral de San Marcos | foto Tteske en Wikimedia Commons
Tienen 2,33 metros de altura por 2,53 metros de largo y pesan 900 kilogramos cada una. La superficie de los caballos se doró con mercurio y luego se rayó en estrías paralelas de anchura constante con un cincel, para matizar el efecto dorado al reflejar el sol. En los cascos y cabestros hay grabados números romanos cuya función se desconoce.
Unos 50 años después de ser enviados a Venecia por Dandolo (que murió en 1205 y está enterrado en el interior de la basílica de Santa Sofía de Constantinopla, hoy Estambul) los caballos se instalaron sobre la galería de la basílica de San Marcos.
Pero no terminaría ahí su historia. Cinco siglos más tarde, en 1797 Napoleón derrotó a la República de Venecia y los franceses se llevaron de ella todo lo que pudieron: obras de arte, joyas, armaduras…
El tesoro veneciano fue fundido, así como el de San Marcos, el Bucintoro fue desmantelado para extraer el oro de las decoraciones, y unas 30.000 obras de arte de todas las épocas se vendieron o desaparecieron. Entre las obras que se enviaron a Francia estaban el león de San Marcos y los cuatro caballos dorados.
Napoleón mandó primero colocarlos en los Inválidos, luego en las puertas de las Tullerías y más tarde, en 1806, ordenó la construcción del Arco de Triunfo del Carrusel para conmemorar sus victorias, y que estuviera coronado por una cuadriga de bronce tirada por los cuatro caballos de San Marcos.
El Arco de Triunfo del Carrusel en París está coronado con una réplica de los caballos de San Marcos | foto Thesupermat en Wikimedia Commons
Así, las esculturas permanecieron en París hasta que finalmente tanto el león como los caballos fueron devueltos a Venecia en 1815 por el emperador austríaco tras la derrota de Napoleón en Waterloo, aunque la estatua del león se rompió al ser retirada de la explanada de los Inválidos. Los caballos que hoy coronan el Arco de Triunfo parisino son réplicas de los originales.
Por segunda vez, volvieron a ser colocados en la galería de la basílica de San Marcos, donde estuvieron permanentemente hasta 1981, con solo dos excepciones: durante la Primera Guerra Mundial los caballos junto con otros tesoros del norte de Italia fueron llevados a Roma para protegerlos y, temporalmente, se almacenaron en el Castillo de Sant’Angelo.
Una curiosa coincidencia si tenemos en cuenta que una de las hipótesis sobre su origen afirma que proceden del mausoleo de Adriano, que no es otro que el actual Castillo de Sant’Angelo. Durante la Segunda Guerra Mundial se guardaron en el monasterio de Praglia, cerca de Padua.
Debido al deterioro por la contaminación se decidió sustituirlos por réplicas, que son las que hoy pueden verse presidiendo la famosa plaza veneciana. Los auténticos se guardan en el interior de la basílica, donde están expuestos al público en el museo de la catedral. Son los únicos elementos de una cuadriga de bronce de época clásica que han llegado hasta la actualidad.
Assunto anterior
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Fernando VII dio los primeros pasos de la Orden nombrando 15 grandes cruces, 14 caballeros de primera clase y 3 de segunda. Nombró el Capítulo Supremo, presidido por el Duque de San Carlos. En aquella primera reunión, se propuso al Rey el cambio de clases, que quedaría de la siguiente manera: Gran Cruz, Comendador y Caballero. Para los indigenas americanos se estableció la medalla especial.
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Coast Guard Chief Photographer’s Mate Robert F. Sargent captured this famous D Day image of the scene on Omaha Beach at about 7:40 a.m.
This publicity photograph from the 1962 film, The Longest Day, shows the early assault waves advancing on foot through mined beach obstacles, a mixture of stakes and hedgehogs.
Left: This German plan of beach obstacles shows barbed wire connecting stakes, ramps, hedgehogs, Belgian Gates, and tetrahedrons, as the beach would appear near low tide. Upper right: This Belgian Gate beach obstacle is preserved at the Omaha Beach Memorial Museum in Saint-Laurent-sur-Mer. Lower right: Don Olson poses with a tetrahedron beach obstacle in the collection of the Battle of Normandy Memorial Museum in Bayeux.
The 150mm guns of the German battery at Longues-sur-Mer were located near the coast between Omaha Beach and Gold Beach. Members of the Texas State group pictured here are Laura Bright, Don Olson, and Hannah Reynolds.
The British employed six Airspeed Horsa gliders to land the assault forces near the Caen Canal and Orne River bridges. This full-size Horsa replica, built according to the original wartime glider plans, was unveiled at the Memorial Pegasus museum in 2004 for the 60th anniversary of D-Day.
This aerial photograph shows the Memorial Pegasus museum in the distance, the original 1944 Pegasus Bridge in its permanent position on the museum grounds, and the full size Airspeed Horsa glider replica in the foreground. The landing zone for the three British gliders on D-Day is just visible at the extreme upper right.
The stone monuments of the American Cemetery at Colleville-sur-Mer dominate the foreground of this aerial photograph. The cemetery is located on a bluff overlooking Omaha Beach and the English Channel, both seen in the background.
Los caballos en la fachada de la basílica | foto 
Vista lateral de los cuatro caballos | foto 
Las esculturas originales, hoy expuestas en el museo de la catedral de San Marcos | foto 
Grabado que muestra el traslado de los caballos a Francia en 1797 | foto 
El Arco de Triunfo del Carrusel en París está coronado con una réplica de los caballos de San Marcos | foto 
Maqueta del Mausoleo de Adriano en Roma (hoy Castillo de Sant’Angelo) coronado por una cuadriga de bronce | foto _(5911811430).jpg){kind=small}
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