Born August 8, 1901, in South Dakota, Lawrence attended state university before pursuing graduate studies. He chose to study physics on the advice of Merle Tuve-a childhood friend who was also destined to become a famous physicist. Lawrence enrolled in graduate school at the University of Minnesota in 1922 to study under W. F. G. Swann. As Swann was wooed first to the University of Chicago and then to Yale, Lawrence followed. He graduated with his Ph.D. from Yale University in 1925, where he soon took on a teaching post. In 1928 he headed west to become associate professor of physics at the University of California, Berkeley, where he built up the Radiation Laboratory with university funds and with financial help from private sources and where he would remain for most of his professional career. In 1939, he received the Nobel Prize in Physics for his pioneering work with cyclotrons. He would also earn a reputation in the 1930s as a top scientist-administrator overseeing scores of Rad Lab staff and young physicist cyclotroneers, and securing funding for Laboratory research. By the outbreak of the Second World War, Lawrence had made Berkeley a major center for nuclear physics.
Lawrence thought that it was merely a matter of time before the United States was drawn into the war, and he wanted the government to mobilize its scientific forces as rapidly as possible. Early in 1941, he began to consider using the electromagnetic method to separate the uranium-235 isotope to be used in a uranium bomb. He proposed using a mass spectrometer, converted from use in his 37-inch cyclotron to separate larger, purer samples of uranium-235 for study and, eventually, to use the process to derive the lighter isotope on a large scale. Lawrence dubbed his new device a "calutron" in honor of the University of California. Excited by the prospects, Lawrence launched a campaign to speed up uranium research. He met with Vannevar Bush, director of the National Defense Research Committee, warning that Germany was undoubtedly making progress and that the uranium committee overseeing government support of research was moving too slowly. Bush appointed him an advisor to the committee, a move that quickly resulted in funding for research on the electromagnetic method as well as plutonium work at Berkeley.
Although some observers doubted the likelihood that this method could produce uranium-235 on a large enough scale, Lawrence and his team had such success separating uranium isotopes that Bush expressed the hope in March 1942 that electromagnetic separation might produce enough enriched uranium for a bomb by 1944. In November 1942, electromagnetic separation was one of the two methods-along with gaseous diffusion-chosen for the uranium enrichment process. Research on beam resolution and magnet size and placement led Lawrence and his group to propose an arrangement of huge electromagnetic coils connected by a busbar in an oval racetrack configuration, as seen from above. Forty-eight gaps in the racetrack between the coils would each contain two vacuum tanks. Actual separation of the uranium isotopes would occur in the vacuum tanks. Construction of the first racetracks at the Y-12 Electromagnetic Plant in Oak Ridge, Tennessee, began in February 1943. Lawrence and his team were intimately involved throughout the design, construction, and operation of the Y-12 facility. Despite early optimism about the electromagnetic method, the first tracks were plagued with problems, and enrichment proceeded more slowly than expected. Ultimately, however, the technique proved to be the most fruitful method during the war for the production of weapons-grade uranium.
Lawrence, as head of the Rad Lab, played important roles in other major aspects of the Manhattan Project. Research at the lab by the chemist Glenn T. Seaborg identified element 94, which he later named plutonium, and proved that plutonium-239 was 1.7 times more likely than uranium-235 to fission. This indicated the possibility of producing large amounts of the fissionable plutonium in a uranium pile using plentiful uranium-238, and then separating it chemically. By late 1941, Lawrence was suggesting that plutonium might provide the shortest route to a weapon. In addition, Lawrence was a friend and colleague of the theoretical physicist J. Robert Oppenheimer, who came to Berkeley in 1929. Lawrence helped involve Oppenheimer, who became director of the Los Alamos laboratory, in initial discussions on the physics of the bomb.
Lawrence was first and foremost a physicist, but it was as a leader and promoter where he was perhaps most influential. As the historians Richard Hewlett and Oscar Anderson note:
Lawrence's progress [on electromagnetic separation up to February 1942] had indeed been spectacular, but even more impressive was his style. His daring, courage, and irrepressible optimism were contagious. He inspired his staff to sweat over tedious jobs with no thought of time, his superiors in the university to cut red tape, and his seniors in Washington to see heady visions of an early weapon. When Bush visited Berkeley in February, he found the atmosphere in the laboratory "stimulating" and "refreshing."
After the war, Lawrence remained an important advocate of and participant in nuclear research and weapons development. He was among the first to understand that the extraordinary costs of research in the new, post-war field would require government support. As the director of the Rad Lab, he continued its cutting edge efforts in particle physics. He remained involved in weapons work, including the development of the hydrogen bomb, and he helped found a second weapons laboratory at Livermore, California. Both the Rad Lab and the new weapons laboratory would come to bear his name: the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory and Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory. Lawrence remained director of the Rad Lab until his untimely death on August 27, 1958.
Los Carmelitas descalzos obtuvieron un Breve apostólico de Paulo V para edificar conventos de su Orden en cualquier parte de la Cristiandad; fue este el primero que fundaron en la última parte del Monte Quirinal el año de 1606.
La iglesia se fundó en 1605 como una capilla dedicada a san Pablo para los carmelitas descalzos. La propia orden dotó de fondos a la obra del edificio hasta el descubrimiento en las excavaciones de la escultura conocida como el Hermafrodita Borghese. Scipione Borghese se apropió de ella, pero a cambio, y quizá para compensar su pérdida de influencia debido a la muerte de su tío y patrón, financió el resto de la obra de la fachada y prestó a la orden a su arquitecto, Giovanni Battista Soria. Estas concesiones, sin embargo, sólo se llevaron a efecto en 1624, aunque la obra se acabó dos años más tarde.
Después de la victoria católica en la batalla de la Montaña Blanca en 1620, que hizo retroceder la Reforma en Bohemia, la iglesia fue consagrada de nuevo a la Virgen María. Una imagen maltrecha había sido recuperada del ámbito de aquella batalla por Fray Domingo de Jesús María, de dicha Orden, de las ruinas de la casa de campo de un noble cristiano bohemio, a la cual se le atribuyó la victoria, llamándola Santa María de la Victoria. La imagen fue llevada a Roma por Fray Domingo, depositándose en Santa María la Mayor en presencia de Gregorio XV.
El nombre de Santa María de la Victoria, se dio ulteriormente, en conmemoración por haber reconquistado el emperador Fernando I la ciudad de Praga en 1671. Estandartes turcos capturados en el Sitio de Viena de 1683 cuelgan en la iglesia, como parte de este tema victorioso.
La iglesia es la única estructura diseñada y completada por el arquitecto del Barroco temprano, Carlo Maderno, aunque el interior padeció un fuego en 1833 y requirió una restauración. Su fachada, sin embargo, fue erigida por Soria en vida de Maderno (1624-1626), mostrando la inconfundible influencia de la cercana Santa Susanna de Maderno.
Su interior tiene una sola nave, amplia, bajo una bóveda segmentada baja, con tres capillas laterales interconectadas detrás de arcos separados por colosales pilastras corintias con capiteles dorados que apoyan un rico entablamento. Revestimientos de mármol que contrastan entre sí están enriquecidos con ángeles y putti de estuco blanco y dorado en bulto redondo. El interior fue enriquecido progresivamente después de la muerte de Maderno; su bóveda fue pintada al fresco en 1663 con temas triunfales dentro de compartimentos con marcos ficticios: La Virgen María triunfa sobre la Herejía y Caída de los ángeles rebeldes ejecutados por Giovanni Domenico Cerrini.
Sin duda, parte de la fama de este templo se debe a albergar una de las obras maestras del Barroco, la capilla Cornaro, espectacular y teatral espacio presidido por el grupo escultórico que representa el Éxtasis de Santa Teresa, de Gian Lorenzo Bernini, quizá la obra más conocida de este autor en el campo de la escultura. En la capilla situada frente a esta, dedicada a San José, se encuentra un grupo escultórico que representa el tema del Sueño de San José, obra del escultor Domenico Guidi, que se inspira en la obra de Bernini delante de la cual se halla.1
Different cyclotron size: a) Lawrence ́s first one, b) Venezuela First one (courtesy of Dorly Coehlo), c) Fermi National Laboratory at CERN. And size matters, and Cyclotrons win as best hospital candidates due to Reactors are bigger, harder and difficult to be set in a hospital installation. Can you imagine a nuclear reactor inside a health installation? Radiation Protection Program will consume all the budget available. Size, controlled reactions, electrical control, made cyclotrons easy to install, and baby cyclotrons come selfshielded so hospital don ́t need to spend money in a extremely large bunker. Now on, we are going to talk about our first experience with the set up of a baby cyclotron for medical uses inside the first PET installation in Latin America. “Baby” means its acceleration “D” diameters are suitable to be set inside a standard hospital room dimensions, with all its needs to be safetly shielded for production transmision and synthetized for human uses for imaging in Nuclear Medicine PET routine. When we ask why Cyclotrons are better than reactors for radioisotopes production to be used in Medicine, we also have to have in mind that they has: 1. Less radioactive waste 2. Less harmful debris
Madeleine of Valois (10 August 1520 – 7 July 1537) was a French princess who briefly became Queen of Scotland in 1537 as the first wife of King James V. The marriage was arranged in accordance with the Treaty of Rouen, and they were married at Notre-Dame de Paris in January 1537, despite French reservations over her failing health. Madeleine died in July 1537, only six months after the wedding and less than two months after arriving in Scotland, resulting in her nickname, the "Summer Queen".
She was frail from birth, and grew up in the warm and temperate Loire Valley region of France, rather than at Paris, as her father feared that the cold would destroy her delicate health. Together with her sister, Margaret, she was raised by her aunt, Marguerite de Navarre until her father remarried and his new wife, Eleanor of Austria, took them into her own household.[1] By her sixteenth birthday, she had contracted tuberculosis.[2]
Three years before Madeleine's birth, the Franco-Scottish Treaty of Rouen was made to bolster the Auld Alliance after Scotland's defeat at the Battle of Flodden. A marriage between a French princess and the Scottish King was one of its provisions.[3] In April 1530, John Stewart, Duke of Albany, was appointed commissioner to finalize the royal marriage between James V and Madeleine.[4] However, as Madeleine did not enjoy good health, another French bride, Mary of Bourbon, was proposed.[5]
James V sent his herald James Atkinhead to see Mary of Bourbon,[6] and a contract was made for James to marry her. King James travelled to France in 1536 to meet Mary of Bourbon, but smitten with the delicate Madeleine, he asked Francis I for her hand in marriage. Fearing the harsh climate of Scotland would prove fatal to his daughter's already failing health, Francis I initially refused to permit the marriage.[7]
James V met Francis I and the French royal household between Roanne and Lyon on 13 October.[8] He continued to press Francis I for Madeleine's hand, and despite his reservations and nagging fears, Francis I reluctantly granted permission to the marriage only after Madeleine made her interest in marrying James very obvious. The court moved down the Loire Valley to Amboise, and to the Chteau de Blois, and the marriage contract was signed on 26 November 1536.[9]
In preparation for the wedding, Francis I bought clothes and furnishings for Madeleine; jewels and gold chains were supplied by Regnault Danet, linen and cloths by Marie de Genevoise and Phillipe Savelon, clothes by the tailors Marceau Goursault and Charles Lacquait, veils by Jean Guesdon, and trimmings by Victor de Laval, who also made passementerie for a bed that Francis gave the couple. The goldsmith Thibault Hotman made silver plate for Madeleine.[10][11] The merchants of the royal "argenterie", René Tardif and Robert Fichepain supplied silks and woollen cloth.[12] A quantity of gold and silver trimmings for embroidering the clothes of Madeleine and her ladies were ordered from Baptiste Dalverge, a wire-drawer.[13] A platform walkway was constructed from the Bishop's Palace to Notre-Dame de Paris.[14]
Francis I provided Madeleine with a generous dowry of 100,000 écu, and a further 30,000 francs settled on James V. According to the marriage contract made at Blois, Madeleine renounced her and any of her heirs' claims to the French throne. If James died first, Madeleine would retain for her lifetime assets including the Earldoms of Fife, Strathearn, Ross, and Orkney with Falkland Palace, Stirling Castle, and Dingwall Castle, with the Lordship of Galloway and Threave Castle.[19]
Coat of arms of Madeleine of Valois as Queen consort of Scots
In February the couple moved to Chantilly, to Senlis and Compiègne, where James received the Papal gift of hat and sword.[20][21][22] They stayed two nights at the Chteau de La Roche-Guyon.[23] After months of festivities and celebrations, the couple left France for Scotland from Le Havre in May 1537. The French ships were commanded by Jacques de Fountaines, Sieur de Mormoulins.[24] On 15 May, English sailors sold fish to the Scottish and French fleet off Bamburgh Head.[25] Madeleine's health deteriorated even further, and she was very sick when the royal pair landed in Scotland. They arrived at Leith at 10 o'clock on Whitsun-eve, 19 May 1537.[26]
According to John Lesley the ships were laden with her possessions;
"besides the Quenes Hienes furnitour, hinginis, and appareill, quhilk wes schippit at Newheavin and careit in Scotland, was also in hir awin cumpanye, transportit with hir majestie in Scotland, mony costlye jewells and goldin wark, precious stanis, orient pearle, maist excellent of any sort that was in Europe, and mony coistly abilyeaments for hir body, with mekill silver wark of coistlye cupbordis, cowpis, & plaite."[27]
A list or inventory of wedding presents from Francis I also survives, including Arras tapestry, cloths of estate, rich beds, two cupboards of silver gilt plate, table carpets, and Persian carpets.[28][29] Francis I also gave James V three of the ships, the Salamander, Morsicher, and Great Unicorn.[30] Madeleine took up residence at Holyrood Palace on 21 May 1537.[31]
Saint Lawrence, a diacon and martyr, is celebrated on August 10th. He is the patron saint of the poor, cooks, and deacons.
Life of Saint Lawrence
He was one of the seven deacons in the Roman church who served Pope Sixtus II.
He was executed in 258 during the persecution of the emperor Valerian.
He is known for giving the church's wealth to the poor and sick before his arrest.
He is said to have been roasted alive on a gridiron.
He is said to have joked with his executioners, "Turn me over; I'm done on this side!".
Legacy of Saint Lawrence
He is considered one of the most venerated martyrs in Rome.
Many people converted to Christianity after his death, including several senators who witnessed his execution.
The Basílica of San Lorenzo Extramuros in Rome was built on the site of his burial.
He is also invoked against fire and back pain.
Italian tradition
In Italy, August 10th is known as the night of St. Lawrence, when people look for shooting stars.
The stars are said to be the tears of St. Lawrence.
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