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General: EXPULSION OF EUROPEAN JEWISH COMMUNITIES BETWEEN 1100 AND 1600
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A personal motive on the part of the monarchs can also be ruled out, as there is no indication that they felt any repugnance towards Jews and converts. Among the monarchs' trusted men were several who belonged to this group, such as the confessor of the queen friar Hernando de Talavera, the steward Andrés Cabrera, the treasurer of the Santa Hermandad Abraham Senior, or Mayr Melamed and Isaac Abarbanel, without counting the Jewish doctors that attended them.[77]

Expulsion of European Jewish communities between 1100 and 1600. The main routes that the Spanish Jews followed are marked in light brown.

Current historians prefer to place expulsion in the European context, and those such as Luis Suárez Fernández or Julio Valdeón highlight that the Catholic Monarchs were, in fact, the last of the sovereigns of the great western European states to decree expulsion – the Kingdom of England did it in 1290, the Kingdom of France in 1394; in 1421 the Jews were expelled from Vienna; in 1424 from Linz and of Colonia; in 1439 from Augsburg; in 1442 from Bavaria; in 1485 from Perugia; in 1486 from Vicenza; in 1488 from Parma; in 1489 from Milan and Luca; in 1493 from Sicily; in 1494 from Florence; in 1498 from Provence...-.[78] The objective of all of them was to achieve unity of faith in their states, a principle that would be defined in the 16th century with the maxim "cuius regio, eius religio," i.e., that the subjects should profess the same religion as their prince.[79]

As Joseph Pérez has pointed out, the expulsion "puts an end to an original situation in Christian Europe: that of a nation that consents to the presence of different religious communities" with which it "becomes a nation like the rest in European Christendom." Pérez adds, "The University of Paris congratulated Spain for having carried out an act of good governance, an opinion shared by the best minds of the time (MachiavelliGuicciardiniPico della Mirandola)... [...] it was the so-called medieval coexistence that was strange to Christian Europe."[80]



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Sephardic Jews

 
 
Sephardic Jews
יְהוּדֵי סְפָרַד‎ (Yehudei Sfarad)
Statue of the Sephardic rabbiphilosopher and physician Maimonides in Córdoba, Spain
Languages
Traditional:
Judaeo-Spanish (Ladino), Hebrew (liturgical), Andalusian ArabicJudaeo-PortugueseHaketiaJudaeo-CatalanJudaeo-OccitanJudaeo-BerberJudeo-ArabicJudaeo-Papiamento (in Curaçao)
Modern:
Modern (Israeli) HebrewSephardi Hebrew (liturgical), Spanish, Portuguese, French, Dutch, Italian, Bulgarian, GreekTurkishPersianother local languages
Religion
Judaism
Related ethnic groups
Mizrahi JewsAshkenazi JewsHispanic Jews/Latino Jews, other Jewish ethnic divisions, and Samaritans

Sephardic Jews (Hebrewיְהוּדֵי סְפָרַדromanizedYehudei Sfaradtransl. 'Jews of Spain'; LadinoDjudios Sefaradis), also known as Sephardi Jews or Sephardim,[a][1] and rarely as Iberian Peninsular Jews,[2] are a Jewish diaspora population associated with the Iberian Peninsula (Spain and Portugal).[2] The term, which is derived from the Hebrew Sepharad (lit.'Spain'), can also refer to the Jews of the Middle East and North Africa, who were also heavily influenced by Sephardic law and customs.[3] Many Iberian Jewish exiled families also later sought refuge in those Jewish communities, resulting in ethnic and cultural integration with those communities over the span of many centuries.[2] The majority of Sephardim live in Israel.[4]

The Jewish communities of the Iberian Peninsula prospered for centuries under the Muslim reign of Al-Andalus following the Umayyad conquest of Hispania, but their fortunes began to decline with the Christian Reconquista campaign to retake Spain. In 1492, the Alhambra Decree by the Catholic Monarchs of Spain called for the expulsion of Jews, and in 1496, King Manuel I of Portugal issued a similar edict for the expulsion of both Jews and Muslims.[5] These actions resulted in a combination of internal and external migrations, mass conversions, and executions. By the late 15th century, Sephardic Jews had been largely expelled from Spain and scattered across North AfricaWestern AsiaSouthern and Southeastern Europe, either settling near existing Jewish communities or as the first in new frontiers, such as along the Silk Road.[6]

Historically, the vernacular languages of the Sephardic Jews and their descendants have been variants of either Spanish, Portuguese, or Catalan, though they have also adopted and adapted other languages. The historical forms of Spanish that differing Sephardic communities spoke communally were related to the date of their departure from Iberia and their status at that time as either New Christians or Jews. Judaeo-Spanish, also called Ladino, is a Romance language derived from Old Spanish that was spoken by the eastern Sephardic Jews who settled in the Eastern Mediterranean after their expulsion from Spain in 1492; Haketia (also known as "Tetuani Ladino" in Algeria), an Arabic-influenced variety of Judaeo-Spanish, was spoken by North African Sephardic Jews who settled in the region after the 1492 Spanish expulsion.

In 2015, more than five centuries after the expulsion, both Spain and Portugal enacted laws allowing Sephardic Jews who could prove their ancestral origins in those countries to apply for citizenship.[7] The Spanish law that offered citizenship to descendants of Sephardic Jews expired in 2019, although subsequent extensions were granted by the Spanish government —due to the COVID-19 pandemic— in order to file pending documents and sign delayed declarations before a notary public in Spain.[8] In the case of Portugal, the nationality law was modified in 2022 with very stringent requirements for new Sephardic applicants,[9][10] effectively ending the possibility of successful applications without evidence of a personal travel history to Portugal —which is tantamount to prior permanent residence— or ownership of inherited property or concerns on Portuguese soil.[11]

Etymology

[edit]

The name Sephardi means "Spanish" or "Hispanic", derived from Sepharad (HebrewסְפָרַדModern: SfarádTiberian: Səp̄āráḏ), a Biblical location.[12] The location of the Biblical Sepharad points to the Iberian peninsula, then the westernmost outpost of Phoenician maritime trade.[13] Jewish presence in Iberia is believed to have started during the reign of King Solomon,[14] whose excise imposed taxes on Iberian exiles. Although the first date of arrival of Jews in Iberia is the subject of ongoing archaeological research, there is evidence of established Jewish communities as early as the 1st century CE.[15]

Modern transliteration of Hebrew romanizes the consonant פ (pe without a dagesh dot placed in its center) as the digraph ph, in order to represent fe or the single phoneme /f/ , the English sound that is voiceless labiodental fricative. In other languages and scripts, "Sephardi" may be translated as plural HebrewסְפָרַדִּיםModern: SfaraddimTiberian: Səp̄āraddîmSpanishSefardíesPortugueseSefarditasCatalanSefarditesAragoneseSafardísBasqueSefardiakFrenchSéfaradesGalicianSefardísItalianSefarditiGreekΣεφαρδίτεςSepharditesSerbo-CroatianСефарди, SefardiJudaeo-SpanishSefaradies/Sefaradim; and ArabicسفارديونSafārdiyyūn.



 
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