The original Horses inside the St Mark's BasilicaThe replica Horses of Saint Mark
The Horses of Saint Mark (Italian: Cavalli di San Marco), also known as the Triumphal Quadriga or Horses of the Hippodrome of Constantinople, is a set of bronze statues of four horses, originally part of a monument depicting a quadriga (a four-horse carriage used for chariot racing). The horses were placed on the facade, on the loggia above the porch, of St Mark's Basilica in Venice, northern Italy, after the sack and looting of Constantinople in 1204. They remained there until looted by Napoleon in 1797 but were returned in 1815. The sculptures have been removed from the facade and placed in the interior of St Mark's for conservation purposes, with replicas in their position on the loggia.
The sculptures date from classical antiquity. Many scholars believe they were sculpted in the 2nd or 3rd century AD, noting similarities to the Equestrian Statue of Marcus Aurelius in Rome (c. 175 AD).[1] But some say the evident technical expertise and naturalistic rendering of the animals suggest they were made in Classical Greece of the 5th and 4th centuries BC.[2]
In light of their short backs and long legs, it has been argued that they were originally situated above the eye line,[3] probably created to top a triumphal arch or some other grand building. Perhaps commissioned by the Emperor Septimus Severus, they may originally have been made for the Eastern capital of Constantinople, where they were long displayed.[3]
Analysis suggests that the sculptures are at least 96.67% copper,[4] and therefore should be viewed not as made from bronze but of an impure copper. The relatively low tin content increased the casting temperature to 1200–1300 °C.[5] The copper was chosen to give a more satisfactory mercury gilding.
The Return of the Horses of San Marco by Vincenzo Chilone, depicting the return of the horses in 1815.
The horses, along with the quadriga with which they were depicted, were long displayed at the Hippodrome of Constantinople; they may be the "four gilt horses that stand above the Hippodrome" that "came from the island of Chios under Theodosius II" mentioned in the 8th- or early 9th-century Parastaseis syntomoi chronikai.[6] As part of the sack of the capital of the Byzantine Empire in the Fourth Crusade, they were looted by Venetian forces in 1204. That same year, the collars on the four horses were added to obscure where the animals' heads had been severed to allow them to be transported from Constantinople to Venice.[7] Shortly after the Fourth Crusade, DogeEnrico Dandolo sent the horses to Venice, where they were installed on the terrace of the façade of St Mark's Basilica in 1254. Petrarch admired them there.[8]
In 1815, following the final defeat of Napoleon, the horses were returned to Venice by Captain Dumaresq. He had fought at the Battle of Waterloo and was with the Coalition forces in Paris where he was selected, by the Emperor of Austria, to take the horses down from the Arc de Triomphe du Carrousel and return them to St Mark's in Venice. For the skillful manner in which he performed this work, the Emperor gave him a gold snuff box with his initials in diamonds on the lid.[9]
The horses remained in place over St Mark's until the early 1980s, when damage from air pollution led them to be removed and put on display inside the basilica. They were replaced on the loggia with replicas.
July 25th has witnessed a series of pivotal events that have shaped the course of history across various fields.
From groundbreaking achievements in aviation and medical science to significant political shifts and cultural moments, this day encapsulates a diverse array of historical milestones.
Join us as we explore some of the most notable occurrences on this date, delving into their impacts and legacies that continue to resonate today.
July 25th – On this Day in History
306 – Constantine I proclaimed Roman Emperor
On July 25, 306, Constantine the Great was declared Roman Emperor by his troops after the death of his father, Constantius Chlorus, in Eboracum (modern-day York, England).
This proclamation marked the beginning of Constantine’s reign, during which he would play a crucial role in shaping the future of the Roman Empire.
His subsequent policies and reforms, including the Edict of Milan in 313, which granted religious tolerance to Christians, had a lasting impact on both the empire and the Christian religion. Constantine’s rule laid the foundation for the Byzantine Empire and the spread of Christianity throughout Europe.
315 – Arch of Constantine inaugurated in Rome
The Arch of Constantine, one of Rome’s most famous monuments, was inaugurated on July 25, 315. Erected to commemorate Constantine I’s victory over Maxentius at the Battle of the Milvian Bridge in 312, the arch stands near the Colosseum.
It is a triumphal arch adorned with sculptures and reliefs that celebrate Constantine’s victory and his consolidation of power.
The arch not only served as a political symbol of Constantine’s authority but also showcased the artistic and architectural styles of the time, incorporating elements from earlier monuments to glorify the emperor’s achievements.
1261 – Constantinople recaptured by Nicaean forces, ending the Latin Empire
On July 25, 1261, forces from the Empire of Nicaea recaptured Constantinople, ending the Latin Empire established by the Fourth Crusade in 1204. This event marked the restoration of the Byzantine Empire under Emperor Michael VIII Palaiologos.
The recapture of the city was a significant turning point, as it restored Byzantine control over its historic capital. However, the empire never fully recovered its former power and prestige, struggling against internal strife and external threats until its eventual fall to the Ottoman Turks in 1453.
1593 – Henry IV of France converted from Protestantism to Catholicism
On July 25, 1593, Henry IV of France converted from Protestantism to Catholicism, famously stating, “Paris is well worth a mass.” This pragmatic decision was made to secure his position as king and bring peace to a country torn apart by religious wars.
His conversion helped to end the French Wars of Religion, a series of conflicts between Catholics and Huguenots (French Protestants), and paved the way for the Edict of Nantes in 1598, which granted religious tolerance to Protestants.
Henry IV’s reign brought stability and prosperity to France and earned him the nickname “Good King Henry.”
1759 – French defeated at the Battle of Ticonderoga in the Seven Years’ War
On July 25, 1759, during the Seven Years’ War, British forces under General Jeffrey Amherst captured the French stronghold of Fort Carillon (later renamed Fort Ticonderoga) in present-day New York. This victory was part of a larger campaign to gain control over the strategic waterways of North America.
The fall of Ticonderoga marked a turning point in the war in favor of the British, who sought to expand their colonial territories at the expense of the French. The victory opened the way for further British advances into Canada and played a significant role in shaping the future of North America.
1797 – Horatio Nelson lost more than 300 men and his right arm during the failed conquest of Tenerife
On July 25, 1797, British Admiral Horatio Nelson led an attack on Santa Cruz de Tenerife in the Canary Islands during the French Revolutionary Wars. The expedition aimed to capture the strategic port, but it ended in failure.
During the battle, Nelson sustained a severe wound, resulting in the amputation of his right arm. Despite this setback, he displayed remarkable resilience and continued his naval career, eventually becoming one of Britain’s greatest naval heroes. This event highlighted his determination and contributed to his legendary status.
1814 – War of 1812: Battle of Lundy’s Lane, one of the bloodiest battles of the war, takes place
The Battle of Lundy’s Lane, one of the bloodiest battles of the War of 1812, took place on July 25, 1814, near Niagara Falls. American and British forces clashed in a fierce and indecisive engagement that lasted well into the night.
Despite high casualties on both sides, neither could claim a decisive victory. The battle demonstrated the intensity of the conflict along the Canadian-American border and underscored the strategic stalemate that characterized much of the war. It also highlighted the valor and resilience of both American and British troops.
1837 – First commercial use of an electric telegraph
On July 25, 1837, the first commercial use of an electric telegraph took place, marking a significant advancement in communication technology.
Developed by William Fothergill Cooke and Charles Wheatstone in England, the telegraph revolutionized long-distance communication by transmitting messages through electrical signals over wires.
This innovation laid the groundwork for the global telecommunications industry, transforming how information was shared and playing a crucial role in commerce, journalism, and personal communication.
1861 – Congress passed the Crittenden-Johnson Resolution, stating the Civil War was fought to preserve the Union, not to end slavery
On July 25, 1861, the United States Congress passed the Crittenden-Johnson Resolution, asserting that the ongoing Civil War was being fought to preserve the Union, not to interfere with slavery. This resolution aimed to maintain the loyalty of the border states and reassure Northerners who were concerned about the war’s purpose.
However, as the war progressed, the focus shifted increasingly towards the abolition of slavery, especially after the issuance of the Emancipation Proclamation in 1863. The resolution reflects the complex and evolving motivations behind the Union’s war effort.
1866 – Ulysses S. Grant became the first General of the Army
This appointment recognized Grant’s leadership and success as a Union general during the Civil War, particularly his role in key victories at battles such as Vicksburg and Appomattox.
As General of the Army, Grant oversaw the post-war military and played a significant role in Reconstruction efforts. His leadership and strategic acumen contributed to his later election as the 18th President of the United States.
1898 – United States invades Puerto Rico during the Spanish-American War
On July 25, 1898, during the Spanish-American War, American forces led by General Nelson A. Miles invaded Puerto Rico. This military action was part of a larger campaign against Spanish colonial rule in the Caribbean and the Pacific. The invasion was relatively swift, facing limited resistance from Spanish troops.
The conflict resulted in the Treaty of Paris, which ceded Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines to the United States, significantly expanding American influence and marking a turning point in U.S. imperialism.
1909 – Louis Blériot makes the first flight across the English Channel in a heavier-than-air machine
On July 25, 1909, French aviator Louis Blériot made history by becoming the first person to fly across the English Channel in a heavier-than-air aircraft. He piloted his Blériot XI monoplane from Calais, France, to Dover, England, covering the distance in about 37 minutes.
This achievement demonstrated the potential of aviation and marked a significant milestone in the development of powered flight. Blériot’s successful crossing captured the public’s imagination and paved the way for future advancements in aviation technology and commercial air travel.
1917 – Mata Hari sentenced to death for espionage
On July 25, 1917, the renowned dancer and courtesan Mata Hari was sentenced to death by a French military court for espionage during World War I.
Accused of spying for Germany, she was portrayed as a dangerous femme fatale, although the evidence against her was largely circumstantial.
Her trial and execution highlighted the paranoia and fear of espionage that pervaded wartime Europe. Mata Hari’s story has since become legendary, symbolizing the intrigue and moral complexities of espionage during the war.
1943 – Benito Mussolini dismissed as Italian premier; arrested
On July 25, 1943, Italian dictator Benito Mussolini was dismissed from power by King Victor Emmanuel III and subsequently arrested.
This event marked a turning point in World War II, as Mussolini’s downfall signaled the collapse of the Fascist regime in Italy. It also led to Italy’s eventual surrender to the Allies.
The dismissal was influenced by military defeats and widespread dissatisfaction with Mussolini’s leadership. His arrest set the stage for a period of political turmoil in Italy and a shift in the balance of power in the war.
1956 – Suez Crisis: Egyptian President Nasser nationalized the Suez Canal
On July 25, 1956, Egyptian President Gamal Abdel Nasser nationalized the Suez Canal, previously controlled by British and French interests. This bold move aimed to fund the construction of the Aswan High Dam and assert Egypt’s sovereignty.
The nationalization led to the Suez Crisis, where Britain, France, and Israel launched a military intervention to regain control of the canal. The crisis highlighted the waning influence of European colonial powers and the rising importance of Middle Eastern geopolitics during the Cold War. It also marked a significant moment in the decolonization movement.
1965 – Bob Dylan controversially used electric instruments at the Newport Folk Festival
On July 25, 1965, Bob Dylan performed with an electric band at the Newport Folk Festival, marking a significant shift in his musical style. This performance was controversial, as Dylan was primarily known for his acoustic folk music.
The audience’s reaction was mixed, with some embracing the new sound and others feeling betrayed. This moment is often seen as a pivotal point in rock music history, symbolizing the merging of folk and rock genres and highlighting Dylan’s evolving artistry.
1978 – Birth of Louise Brown, the first test-tube baby
On July 25, 1978, Louise Brown, the world’s first baby conceived through in vitro fertilization (IVF), was born in England. Her birth marked a groundbreaking achievement in reproductive technology, offering hope to millions of couples struggling with infertility.
The successful use of IVF opened new possibilities for assisted reproductive treatments and sparked discussions about the ethical and social implications of such technologies. Louise Brown’s birth is celebrated as a milestone in medical science.
1984 – Cosmonaut Svetlana Savitskaya became the first woman to perform a spacewalk
On July 25, 1984, Soviet cosmonaut Svetlana Savitskaya became the first woman to perform a spacewalk. During her mission aboard the Salyut 7 space station, she conducted an extravehicular activity (EVA) that lasted nearly four hours.
This achievement not only highlighted her skills and bravery but also underscored the contributions of women in space exploration. Savitskaya’s spacewalk was a significant step forward for gender equality in the field of astronautics.
1994 – Israel and Jordan sign the Washington Declaration, formally ending the state of war
On July 25, 1994, Israel and Jordan signed the Washington Declaration, officially ending the state of war between the two nations. This agreement was a crucial step towards peace in the Middle East, facilitated by the United States.
It laid the groundwork for the Israel-Jordan Peace Treaty later that year, fostering improved diplomatic and economic relations. The declaration represented a significant move towards regional stability and cooperation.
2000 – Air France Flight 4590 crashes on takeoff in Paris, killing 113
On July 25, 2000, Air France Flight 4590, a Concorde supersonic airliner, crashed shortly after takeoff from Charles de Gaulle Airport in Paris. All 109 passengers and crew on board, along with four people on the ground, were killed.
The crash was caused by a strip of metal left on the runway by another aircraft, which led to a tire explosion and subsequent fuel tank rupture. This tragic event marked the beginning of the end for the Concorde program, highlighting safety concerns and contributing to the aircraft’s eventual retirement in 2003.
Directly in the courtyard of the Louvre is the Arc de Triomphe du Carrousel that was commissioned by Napoleon to commemorate his military victories (along with the “other” Arc de Triomphe on the Champs Elysées).
Initially, on top of the Arc de Triomphe du Carrousel were placed the Horses of Saint Mark. They had adorned the Basilica of San Marco in Venice since the sack of Constantinople in 1204 and had been brought to Paris where they were placed atop Napoleon’s Arc de Triomphe du Carrousel.
After Napoleon Bonaparte’s defeat at the Battle of Waterloo, many of the countries he had previously conquered asked for their artwork back. The Horses of Saint Mark were returned to Italy and today there is a copy on top instead.
Ayer ya hicimos una breve incursión sobre el Arco del Triunfo del Carrousel. Dejamos en un punto y aparte una explicación más profunda del monumento que lo corona. Allí vemos un carro tirado por cuatro caballos que es escoltado por las alegorías de la Victoria y de la Paz. Pero este monumento no fue siempre el que estuvo allí mirando al frente del Museo del Louvre. Para entender su historia quizá antes tengamos que dar una vuelta por Venecia.
Los cuatro caballos originales de la cuadriga de bronce fueron parte del botín de guerra de Napoleón, y se encontraban en la plaza de la Basílica de San Marco de Venecia. Estos caballos venecianos eran, a su vez, copias de originales griegos de bronce dorado del siglo IV a. C. que venían del Templo del Sol de Corintia.
La cuádriga del Carrousel vista de espalda.
Estas esculturas originales datan de finales de la Antigüedad Clásica y han sido atribuidas al escultor griego Lisipo del siglo IV a.C. Aunque siempre se creía que eran de bronce, los análisis sugieren que están hechas de cobre. Al parecer este material fue escogido para obtener un más satisfactorio dorado. Dados los actuales conocimientos de la tecnología antigua, este método de fabricación sugiere que las piezas son de factura romana en vez de helénico.
Los caballos junto a su cuadriga fueron expuestos en el Hipódromo de Constantinopla durante siglos. En 1204, fueron tomados por las fuerzas venecianas durante el saqueo de la capital bizantina en la Cuarta Cruzada. Lo que ocurrió con el auriga después de la Cuarta Cruzada es desconocido. El Dogo de Venecia Enrico Dandolo envió los caballos a Venecia, donde se instalaron en la terraza de la fachada de la Basílica de San Marcos en 1254.
En 1797, Napoleón tomó los caballos por la fuerza y los llevó a París, donde fueron usados en el diseño del Arco de Triunfo del Carrousel, en ese caso junto a un cuadriga.
En 1815 los caballos fueron devueltos a la Basílica tras la derrota francesa. Permanecieron en la terraza hasta comienzos de la década de 1980, cuando, para evitar daños por la polución del aire y el efecto del excremento de las aves, fueron substituidas por réplicas. Desde entonces, la cuadriga original está expuesta en un Museo dentro de la Basílica.
Los caballos en el Museo de San Marco.
El carro parisino es escoltado por las alegorías de la Victoria y de la Paz, en oro. Se cree comúnmente que la persona que conduce el carro es el emperador en persona. Sin embargo, no es el caso.
En su momento se fabricó una estatua de bronce de «Napoleón triunfador conduciendo el carro de la victoria«, y se la colocó en su lugar correspondiente. Pero el emperador rehusó al final a ver su esfinge en la cumbre de este arco dedicado a la gran armada. Se quitó la estatua en 1812 y el carro se quedó vacío hasta 1828.
La estatua de Napoleón es de bronce dorado y es obra de François Frédéric Lemot. Se encuentra actualmente en el Museo del Louvre, a escasos cincuenta metros de su destino original.
En 1815 los aliados contra Francia ocupan la capital gala y devuelven los caballos a Venecia.
I think every visitor to Berlin is drawn to the Brandenburg Gate and Pariser Platz. The gate is the most famous landmark, a good reason for Berliners to drive by and stroll along the tourist paths.
We park our car on the Straße des 17.Juni right next to the statue, which is located on the central reservation of the roadway. The bronze figure with the distinctive name “The Caller” stands on a pedestal with the inscription “I walk through the world and call peace peace peace”. In 1989 it got its place and “calls” in the direction of the Brandenburg Gate and the former eastern part of Berlin. For me, it is a very expressive figure that would be even better today as a rotating figure “calling” in all directions.
We approach the gate via Platz des 18.März and I take a big step, as I often do, over the paving stones that show the former course of the Berlin Wall in front of the Brandenburg Gate. It occurs to me that I walked through the Brandenburg Gate for the first time in early 1990. This is the only picture in our thousands of family photos that I have found at all that shows the Brandenburg Gate.
1990 – Susanne vor dem Brandenburger Tor
About the Brandenburg Gate
Around 1670, Dorotheenstadt was built, which was integrated into the city fortifications of Berlin. At the site where the Brandenburg Gate now stands, there was a breach through the rampart and a drawbridge over the moat. The first Brandenburg Gate, so to speak. In 1734, a customs wall was built around Berlin. The old passage of the rampart became a city gate on the road leading to Brandenburg an der Havel. This gate was dismantled in 1788.
Frederick William II planned to build a new Brandenburg Gate as a representation of his rulers’ domestic and foreign policy. He wanted to have a gate built that resembled a Greek temple and thus present himself as the ruler who would bring Prussia a golden age. The gate was to be called the Gate of Peace and its beauty was to be shown inwardly to the inhabitants of the city.
Building the gate
Carl Gotthard Langhans was commissioned by Frederick William II to implement the building plans. The result was a gateway consisting of two rows of columns. Between each row was a brick and plaster wall, which was necessary to distribute the load of the upper section and the quadriga. This created 5 gateways of different widths. The two wing buildings flanking the sides were built later. They form a transition to the neighbouring buildings, thus creating a kind of courtyard of honour in front of the gate.
The dimensions of the Brandenburg Gate are already impressive. The gate is 26 metres high up to the top of the quadriga.
Quadriga
The quadriga is the most striking decorative element of the gate. Victoria, the goddess of victory, enters in her chariot and symbolically represents the arrival of peace in Berlin. It was erected in 1793, at which time it was not yet finally decided whether the quadriga should remain copper or whether it would be gilded. It was later decided not to gild it. The sculpture was subsequently altered when it was realised that the victor’s emblem (spear, helmet, armour, 2 shields) was more recognisable as a lantern from a distance. Victoria was thus given a pole with a victor’s wreath and eagle.
In 1814, the victory symbol was changed once again. Schinkel created a pole crowned by an oak wreath. On the oak wreath sat an eagle with outstretched wings and it enclosed an Iron Cross. Today there is a replica on the gate. All that remains of the original is a horse’s head, which is in the Märkisches Museum.
Function of the Brandenburg Gate
In the past, the Brandenburg Gate not only had a representative function, but also had to fulfil a function. Anyone who wanted to pass through the gate had to pay an excise duty. Attention was paid to who entered or left the city and, in addition, the soldiers on guard had to make sure that none of their colleagues deserted.
The side wings were used by the tax authorities and the guards as accommodation. The middle largest passage served as a thoroughfare and could be closed with gate wings. Only the equipages of the yard were allowed to pass through this gate. At night, the gate was closed with wooden doors. With the expansion of the town in 1861, the gate was no longer locked.
Stories around the Brandenburg Gate
There are many stories in which the Brandenburg Gate plays a role. I have written down three of them.
How the Quadriga left Berlin and returned
On 27 October 1806, Napoleon marched through the Brandenburg Gate in Berlin as the winner of the Fourth Coalition War against Prussia. He issued instructions to dismantle the quadriga and send it to Paris. At the beginning of December, the statue was dismantled and packed into 12 crates and sent to France. It finally arrived in Paris on 17 May 1807. Napoleon actually wanted to place the quadriga on a newly built triumphal arch. However, due to the dismantling, disassembly and transport, the figure showed great damage and had to be restored. The work was completed in 1808 and it was placed in the Louvre.
Prussia was naturally anything but happy about this action. On top of the Brandenburg Gate, only a fortification iron stuck up like a thorn in this wound.
At the end of March 1814, the Prussian army won the wars of liberation and marched into Paris. After the quadriga had been tracked down, it was immediately taken apart again, packed into 15 crates and transported to Berlin. As soon as the crates reached Prussian territory, the repatriation resembled a triumphal procession. After the carriages reached Berlin, the individual parts were restored in the Grunewald hunting lodge. It was also at this time that the new victory emblem for Victoria was created. In the summer of 1814, the Quadriga was put back on the Brandenburg Gate. Yes, and how could it be otherwise in Berlin, the Quadriga promptly received the nickname “Retourkutsche”.
Brandenburg Gate station
In 1815, about 30 horse owners were granted permission to hire out their horse-drawn carriages around the Brandenburg Gate. Anyone was allowed to hire the carriage and not only, as had been permitted previously, people from the court, nobility or respected artists. Many could not afford it at the time and so the carriages usually stood empty on the street.
In 1825, Hofrat Kremser had an idea that the king initially approved on a trial basis. Kremser placed larger spring-loaded carriages for 10-20 people at the Brandenburg Gate. He laid down precise routes that these carriages were to follow and posted them on the carriages. In addition, Kremser designated stops and fixed departure times for the carriages. The so-called Kremsers were enthusiastically accepted by the Berliners and soon the horse-drawn buses departed from the Brandenburg Gate in a star formation.
Was the quadriga always looking in the same direction?
Unfortunately, apart from a horse’s head, the quadriga was destroyed during the Second World War. Since a plaster cast existed, the reconstruction succeeded and at the end of 1957 it stood again on the Brandenburg Gate. There is a rumour that it once stood the other way round, facing the western part of Berlin. It is said to have been turned around in a night and fog operation. However, this claim is false. It is true that one night in August 1958 the Quadriga was secretly moved to the Neue Marstall. There the Iron Cross was removed. The East Berlin city council did not want to display the emblems of Prussian-German militarism. They were then put back on the Brandenburg Gate.
The Brandenburg Gate – a gate as a symbol of German history
On 13 August 1961, the Wall was erected in Berlin, dividing the city into West and East. The Brandenburg Gate stood in the middle of the restricted area and was no longer accessible to Berliners. Now only GDR border guards or invited guests (on the GDR side) could access a visitor platform. Those of us in the western part of the city could only see the Brandenburg Gate from viewing platforms at an appropriate distance.
There are numerous quotes and statements by people about the Brandenburg Gate and the political situation at that time. One visit is commemorated today by a memorial plaque on the walkway to the gate. In the summer of 1987, the then US President Ronald Reagan spoke the following sentence in front of the gate: “Mr.Gorbachev, open this gate! Mr.Gorbachev, tear down this wall!”
Only 2 years later, 28 years after the Wall was built, the Brandenburg Gate was reopened on 22 December 1989. Later, the barriers were also removed. I walked through the gate for the first time in spring 1990. It was a moment that Berliners will not soon forget.
The square in front of the Brandenburg Gate – Pariser Platz
The original square was built in 1732-1734 as an extension of Friedrichstadt. Aristocratic palaces stood around the square. In 1814, after the Prussian troops had conquered Paris, the square was named Pariser Platz. During the Second World War, the square was heavily destroyed. The remaining buildings were gradually demolished. After reunification, the square was redesigned and an attempt was made to combine modern and historical elements.
Pariser Platz 1990Pariser Platz 2020
For me, next to the Brandenburg Gate, the Hotel Adlon is probably the most famous building on Pariser Platz. The hotel stood on Pariser Platz as early as 1905. From the outside, it looked rather classically conservative for its time. The interior was state-of-the-art: electricity and running hot water were standard in the guest rooms. This attracted guests from all over the world; even Wilhelm II preferred to stay in the heated rooms of the hotel in winter rather than in the draughty palace. In 1945, the hotel burned down and was demolished except for the side wing. This was then demolished in 1984.
After the fall of the Wall, a new hotel complex was built on the same site (1995-97). It is not a reconstruction of the old hotel, but a new design that is stylistically based on the historical model. And as in those days, the Adlon is now a popular and exquisite hotel in the heart of Berlin. Leaving Pariser Platz, you can then stroll along the street Unter den Linden until you reach Museum Island, the Berlin Cathedral and Alexanderplatz.
I think every visitor to Berlin is drawn to the Brandenburg Gate and Pariser Platz. The gate is the most famous landmark, a good reason for Berliners to drive by and stroll along the tourist paths.
We park our car on the Straße des 17.Juni right next to the statue, which is located on the central reservation of the roadway. The bronze figure with the distinctive name “The Caller” stands on a pedestal with the inscription “I walk through the world and call peace peace peace”. In 1989 it got its place and “calls” in the direction of the Brandenburg Gate and the former eastern part of Berlin. For me, it is a very expressive figure that would be even better today as a rotating figure “calling” in all directions.
We approach the gate via Platz des 18.März and I take a big step, as I often do, over the paving stones that show the former course of the Berlin Wall in front of the Brandenburg Gate. It occurs to me that I walked through the Brandenburg Gate for the first time in early 1990. This is the only picture in our thousands of family photos that I have found at all that shows the Brandenburg Gate.
1990 – Susanne vor dem Brandenburger Tor
About the Brandenburg Gate
Around 1670, Dorotheenstadt was built, which was integrated into the city fortifications of Berlin. At the site where the Brandenburg Gate now stands, there was a breach through the rampart and a drawbridge over the moat. The first Brandenburg Gate, so to speak. In 1734, a customs wall was built around Berlin. The old passage of the rampart became a city gate on the road leading to Brandenburg an der Havel. This gate was dismantled in 1788.
Frederick William II planned to build a new Brandenburg Gate as a representation of his rulers’ domestic and foreign policy. He wanted to have a gate built that resembled a Greek temple and thus present himself as the ruler who would bring Prussia a golden age. The gate was to be called the Gate of Peace and its beauty was to be shown inwardly to the inhabitants of the city.
Building the gate
Carl Gotthard Langhans was commissioned by Frederick William II to implement the building plans. The result was a gateway consisting of two rows of columns. Between each row was a brick and plaster wall, which was necessary to distribute the load of the upper section and the quadriga. This created 5 gateways of different widths. The two wing buildings flanking the sides were built later. They form a transition to the neighbouring buildings, thus creating a kind of courtyard of honour in front of the gate.
The dimensions of the Brandenburg Gate are already impressive. The gate is 26 metres high up to the top of the quadriga.
Quadriga
The quadriga is the most striking decorative element of the gate. Victoria, the goddess of victory, enters in her chariot and symbolically represents the arrival of peace in Berlin. It was erected in 1793, at which time it was not yet finally decided whether the quadriga should remain copper or whether it would be gilded. It was later decided not to gild it. The sculpture was subsequently altered when it was realised that the victor’s emblem (spear, helmet, armour, 2 shields) was more recognisable as a lantern from a distance. Victoria was thus given a pole with a victor’s wreath and eagle.
In 1814, the victory symbol was changed once again. Schinkel created a pole crowned by an oak wreath. On the oak wreath sat an eagle with outstretched wings and it enclosed an Iron Cross. Today there is a replica on the gate. All that remains of the original is a horse’s head, which is in the Märkisches Museum.
Function of the Brandenburg Gate
In the past, the Brandenburg Gate not only had a representative function, but also had to fulfil a function. Anyone who wanted to pass through the gate had to pay an excise duty. Attention was paid to who entered or left the city and, in addition, the soldiers on guard had to make sure that none of their colleagues deserted.
The side wings were used by the tax authorities and the guards as accommodation. The middle largest passage served as a thoroughfare and could be closed with gate wings. Only the equipages of the yard were allowed to pass through this gate. At night, the gate was closed with wooden doors. With the expansion of the town in 1861, the gate was no longer locked.
Stories around the Brandenburg Gate
There are many stories in which the Brandenburg Gate plays a role. I have written down three of them.
How the Quadriga left Berlin and returned
On 27 October 1806, Napoleon marched through the Brandenburg Gate in Berlin as the winner of the Fourth Coalition War against Prussia. He issued instructions to dismantle the quadriga and send it to Paris. At the beginning of December, the statue was dismantled and packed into 12 crates and sent to France. It finally arrived in Paris on 17 May 1807. Napoleon actually wanted to place the quadriga on a newly built triumphal arch. However, due to the dismantling, disassembly and transport, the figure showed great damage and had to be restored. The work was completed in 1808 and it was placed in the Louvre.
Prussia was naturally anything but happy about this action. On top of the Brandenburg Gate, only a fortification iron stuck up like a thorn in this wound.
At the end of March 1814, the Prussian army won the wars of liberation and marched into Paris. After the quadriga had been tracked down, it was immediately taken apart again, packed into 15 crates and transported to Berlin. As soon as the crates reached Prussian territory, the repatriation resembled a triumphal procession. After the carriages reached Berlin, the individual parts were restored in the Grunewald hunting lodge. It was also at this time that the new victory emblem for Victoria was created. In the summer of 1814, the Quadriga was put back on the Brandenburg Gate. Yes, and how could it be otherwise in Berlin, the Quadriga promptly received the nickname “Retourkutsche”.
Brandenburg Gate station
In 1815, about 30 horse owners were granted permission to hire out their horse-drawn carriages around the Brandenburg Gate. Anyone was allowed to hire the carriage and not only, as had been permitted previously, people from the court, nobility or respected artists. Many could not afford it at the time and so the carriages usually stood empty on the street.
In 1825, Hofrat Kremser had an idea that the king initially approved on a trial basis. Kremser placed larger spring-loaded carriages for 10-20 people at the Brandenburg Gate. He laid down precise routes that these carriages were to follow and posted them on the carriages. In addition, Kremser designated stops and fixed departure times for the carriages. The so-called Kremsers were enthusiastically accepted by the Berliners and soon the horse-drawn buses departed from the Brandenburg Gate in a star formation.
Was the quadriga always looking in the same direction?
Unfortunately, apart from a horse’s head, the quadriga was destroyed during the Second World War. Since a plaster cast existed, the reconstruction succeeded and at the end of 1957 it stood again on the Brandenburg Gate. There is a rumour that it once stood the other way round, facing the western part of Berlin. It is said to have been turned around in a night and fog operation. However, this claim is false. It is true that one night in August 1958 the Quadriga was secretly moved to the Neue Marstall. There the Iron Cross was removed. The East Berlin city council did not want to display the emblems of Prussian-German militarism. They were then put back on the Brandenburg Gate.
The Brandenburg Gate – a gate as a symbol of German history
On 13 August 1961, the Wall was erected in Berlin, dividing the city into West and East. The Brandenburg Gate stood in the middle of the restricted area and was no longer accessible to Berliners. Now only GDR border guards or invited guests (on the GDR side) could access a visitor platform. Those of us in the western part of the city could only see the Brandenburg Gate from viewing platforms at an appropriate distance.
There are numerous quotes and statements by people about the Brandenburg Gate and the political situation at that time. One visit is commemorated today by a memorial plaque on the walkway to the gate. In the summer of 1987, the then US President Ronald Reagan spoke the following sentence in front of the gate: “Mr.Gorbachev, open this gate! Mr.Gorbachev, tear down this wall!”
Only 2 years later, 28 years after the Wall was built, the Brandenburg Gate was reopened on 22 December 1989. Later, the barriers were also removed. I walked through the gate for the first time in spring 1990. It was a moment that Berliners will not soon forget.
The square in front of the Brandenburg Gate – Pariser Platz
The original square was built in 1732-1734 as an extension of Friedrichstadt. Aristocratic palaces stood around the square. In 1814, after the Prussian troops had conquered Paris, the square was named Pariser Platz. During the Second World War, the square was heavily destroyed. The remaining buildings were gradually demolished. After reunification, the square was redesigned and an attempt was made to combine modern and historical elements.
Pariser Platz 1990Pariser Platz 2020
For me, next to the Brandenburg Gate, the Hotel Adlon is probably the most famous building on Pariser Platz. The hotel stood on Pariser Platz as early as 1905. From the outside, it looked rather classically conservative for its time. The interior was state-of-the-art: electricity and running hot water were standard in the guest rooms. This attracted guests from all over the world; even Wilhelm II preferred to stay in the heated rooms of the hotel in winter rather than in the draughty palace. In 1945, the hotel burned down and was demolished except for the side wing. This was then demolished in 1984.
After the fall of the Wall, a new hotel complex was built on the same site (1995-97). It is not a reconstruction of the old hotel, but a new design that is stylistically based on the historical model. And as in those days, the Adlon is now a popular and exquisite hotel in the heart of Berlin. Leaving Pariser Platz, you can then stroll along the street Unter den Linden until you reach Museum Island, the Berlin Cathedral and Alexanderplatz.
French President Emmanuel Macron, center, poses with President-elect Donald Trump, left, and Ukraine’s President Volodymyr Zelenskyy at the Elysee Palace, Saturday, Dec. 7, 2024 in Paris. (AP Photo/Aurelien Morissard)
Francia homenajea a Charles de Gaulle en el 50 aniversario de su muerte
El hombre que encarnó la Francia Libre durante la ocupación nazi y forjó a su imagen las instituciones de la V República, todavía hoy en vigor, buscó engrandecer la figura de su país en la escena internacional en medio del choque de superpotencias de la “guerra fría”
09 Nov, 2020 07:06 a.m. AR
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El jefe del Estado francés, Charles de Gaulle, acompañado de su esposa, Yvonne Vendroux,en una visita a Londres en m1960. EFE/rsa/Archivo
Francia celebra el 50 aniversario de la muerte de Charles de Gaulle, el padre de la actual República, un personaje que, a lo largo de los años, se ha convertido en una figura central de la política francesa, adoptado por todos los partidos y con enormes cotas de popularidad.
Atrás quedó la controversia que marcó su salida del poder en los años 70, empujado por la ola juvenil de Mayo de 1968, que él mismo combatió en un pulso que acabó por dar a su imagen un barniz demasiado vetusto.
Fallecido el 9 de noviembre de 1970, con el paso de los años, el hombre que encarnó la Francia Libre durante la ocupación nazi, que forjó a su imagen las instituciones de la V República, todavía hoy en vigor, que trató de engrandecer la figura de Francia en la escena internacional en medio del choque de superpotencias de la “guerra fría”, ha cobrado una relevancia central, que en 2020 demuestra toda su intensidad.
Las restricciones de la pandemia han empequeñecido algunos de los actos previstos para conmemorar al personaje, del que además del medio siglo de su muerte se recuerda el 130 aniversario de su nacimiento y los 80 años de su discurso del 18 de junio de 1940.
“Pase lo que pase, la llama de la resistencia francesa no debe apagarse y no se apagará”, clamó la voz profunda del militar en un llamamiento a militares e ingenieros castrenses a proseguir el combate contra el invasor tras el armisticio firmado por las autoridades legítimas dirigidas por el mariscal Pétain.
Pronunciado a través de la radio desde Londres, aquella proclama es considerada como la fundación de la resistencia contra los alemanes y la base sobre la que sustentó su legitimidad para dirigir la Francia libre.
Charles de Gaulle. (Photo by - / AFP)
Su desfile a pie por los Campos Elíseos el 24 de agosto de 1944 marcó el final de la ocupación que él vistió con su célebre frase: “¡París ultrajado! ¡París destruido! ¡París martirizado! ¡Pero París, liberado!”.
A partir de ahí, el general se convirtió en el eje central de la política francesa, construyó un armazón institucional que en 1958 desembocó en la V República, que situaba al presidente, elegido por sufragio universal directo, en la cúspide del poder, restando peso al tradicional parlamentarismo.
Un modelo creado a su imagen y semejanza, la de un político que se convirtió en el padre de la nación, una exigencia que pocos han cumplido después.
De Gaulle se obstinó en que su país no fuera comparsa de nadie en la escena internacional, dotó al país del arma atómica y buscó una voz propia en la dialéctica de bloques.
Conservador en sus ideas, De Gaulle defendió un modelo social-paternalista que muchos defienden en la actualidad como contrapunto a la dialéctica entre izquierda y derecha.
Con el tiempo, las críticas a su figura ha ido dejando paso a una admiración y respeto desde todos los sectores de la política francesa.
Los miembros de la marina francesa del barco Charles de Gaulle participan en la ceremonia militar anual del Día de la Bastilla en la Place de la Concorde en París. Ludovic Marin/Pool via REUTERS
La derecha conservadora, que siempre se ha erigido como defensora de su legado, enarbola la bandera del “gaullismo” incluso en sus posiciones más liberales.
Pero no son los únicos. Otras posiciones ideológicas, creadas en contraposición a su figura han ido reconocido con los años su figura.
Empezando por la extrema derecha, cuya líder actual, Marine Le Pen, no ha dudado en presentarse como heredera del general De Gaulle a quien su padre combatió hasta la saciedad por culparle de la pérdida de Argelia.
Desde la izquierda, la conversión ha sido más paulatina y tuvo un momento álgido cuando el ex presidente socialista François Hollande visitó en 2016 la residencia en Colombey-les-Deux-Églises de De Gaulle, el mismo al que François Mitterrand se opuso toda su vida acusándole de dar “un golpe de Estado permanente”.
También la extrema izquierda, que sigue sin digerir el modelo “monárquico” de la V República, ha integrado elementos del general, ensalzado por su líder, Jean-Luc Mélenchon, por su “visión pacificadora”.
Sin olvidar el presidente, Emmanuel Macron, que no pierde ocasión de lanzar guiños a De Gaulle, frente a las crisis que atraviesa el país, que el actual inquilino del Elíseo afronta con una retórica “gaulliana”, apela a vencer “las dudas”, a recuperar “la esperanza” y “la unidad de la patria” que tantas veces defendió el general.
El presidente acudirá este lunes a Colombey-les-Deux-Églises junto a su esposa, Brigitte Macron, para rendir homenaje al general en su casa y visitar su tumba.
Películas, libros, exposiciones, debates, programas de televisión,... repasan estos días la figura del personaje político que más orgullo genera a los franceses y que más ríos de tinta ha hecho correr después de Napoleón.
Medio siglo después de su muerte, el espigado general ha conseguido lo que siempre buscó en vida: situarse por encima de las controversias partidistas como el guía clarividente de la nación.
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El jefe del Estado francés, Charles de Gaulle, acompañado de su esposa, Yvonne Vendroux,en una visita a Londres en m1960. EFE/rsa/Archivo
Charles de Gaulle. (Photo by - / AFP)
Los miembros de la marina francesa del barco Charles de Gaulle participan en la ceremonia militar anual del Día de la Bastilla en la Place de la Concorde en París. Ludovic Marin/Pool via REUTERS