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General: APOLO(GRIEGO) 11=REINA SOFIA(GRIEGA) DE ESPAÑA (22 DE JULIO DE 1969)=MAGDALENA
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 Un día como hoy 22 de Julio de 1969 las Cortes españolas ratifican el nombramiento de Juan Carlos como sucesor a título de rey hecho por Franco en virtud de la Ley de Sucesión en la Jefatura del estado de 1947. Disposiciones ante las que el entonces joven príncipe prestaría juramento el mismo día de guardar y hacer guardar las Leyes Fundamentales del Reino y los principios del Movimiento Nacional, es decir, el ideario franquista. No obstante, se basó en las facultades que dichas leyes le otorgaban para impulsar el cambio de régimen y facilitar el advenimiento de la democracia. Siguiendo las reglas dinásticas, la sucesión hubiera debido recaer en su padre, Juan de Borbón y Battenberg, tercer hijo y heredero del rey Alfonso XIII. Sin embargo, las no muy cordiales relaciones entre Juan y Franco determinaron el salto en la línea de sucesión y el nombramiento de Juan Carlos como Príncipe de España, título de nuevo cuño con el que Franco pretendía salvar distancias con respecto a la monarquía liberal. Dicho salto fue aceptado por el príncipe Juan Carlos, creando un conflicto interno en la Casa Real de Borbón. El Conde Barcelona no renunciaría oficialmente a sus derechos sucesorios hasta 1977. Juan Carlos I asumió interinamente la jefatura del Estado entre el 19 de julio al 2 de septiembre de 1974 y después desde el 30 de octubre al 20 de noviembre de 1975 por enfermedades de Franco. El 9 de julio de 1974, Franco era ingresado por una flebitis en la pierna derecha. Antes de partir hacia el hospital, llamó al presidente del gobierno, Carlos Arias Navarro, y al presidente de las Cortes Españolas, Alejandro Rodríguez de Valcárcel, para que prepararan el traspaso interino de poderes al príncipe. Con todo, dos días más tarde, Juan Carlos, que no quería un traspaso interino por parte de Franco, intentó persuadir a Arias para que hiciera ver al dictador que debía traspasarle el poder de manera definitiva. Ante la negativa del presidente del Gobierno, el príncipe pidió a Franco que no firmara el decreto de traspaso. El 19 de julio, el estado del dictador se agravó, por lo que Arias acudió al hospital para que aprobara el traspaso. El yerno de Franco, Cristóbal Martínez-Bordiú, intentó impedir que Arias entrara en la habitación del jefe del Estado. Finalmente consiguió acceder, tras lo cual convenció al dictador para que cediera el poder de manera interina, lo que provocó la furia del marqués de Villaverde y de la esposa del dictador, Carmen Polo. Juan Carlos asumía por primera vez la jefatura del Estado de manera interina. Tras un nuevo empeoramiento de la salud de Franco, el 23 de octubre de 1975, Valcárcel y Arias Navarro acudieron a La Zarzuela para proponer al Príncipe que asumiera de nuevo interinamente la jefatura del Estado. Juan Carlos se negó si la sustitución no era definitiva. El 30 de octubre, Franco padeció una peritonitis. Informado de la gravedad de su estado por el equipo médico que lo atendía, el dictador ordenó su sustitución por parte del príncipe Juan Carlos, lo que este aceptó, una vez tuvo la certeza de que la enfermedad del dictador era terminal.
 Un día como hoy 22 de Julio de 1977 se celebra en el Congreso la ceremonia de la solemne inauguración de las Cortes Constituyentes españolas en la que el rey Juan Carlos I reconoce la soberanía del pueblo español. La Legislatura Constituyente de España comienza el 19 de junio de 1977, tras el triunfo por mayoría simple de la UCD en las Elecciones generales de 1977. El nuevo gobierno, presidido por Adolfo Suárez González, vendría a culminar el proceso de Transición española desarrollado en el país tras la muerte de Francisco Franco al propiciar la redacción de la Constitución española de 1978. Las nuevas Cortes se inauguraron por el rey Juan Carlos I un día como hoy 22 de julio de 1977. La I Legislatura es la posterior a la Legislatura Constituyente.
http://www.compartiendomiopinion.com/2015/07/mi-version-de-lo-que-ocurrio-en-la_22.html
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PIEDRA FILOSOFAL / FILOSOFIA / SOFIA (TRANSFIGURACION / LETRA S / SERPIENTE)
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Orden de Isabel La Católica
Instituida por Orden de SM el Rey D. Fernando VII, el día 24 de marzo de 1815.
La invasión napoleónica en España, no solo supuso un revulsivo interno en la política del Reino de España, sino que llevo las ganas de independencia de los criollos de las tierras de ultramar. Ellos, que eran los descendientes de los españoles que fueron descubriendo y civilizando aquellas tierras, dándoles su cultura y tradiciones, sintieron la falta de atención de la Península en los asuntos americanos, aunque si bien es cierto en modo, tampoco faltaban las ganas de aglutinar el poder ellos solos, dejando de lado a la metrópoli de la que venían todas sus heredades.
El desgobierno que había en España derivado de la Guerra de la independencia, fue utilizado por los separatistas, que se infiltraron en las Juntas autónomas creadas en las provincias españoles de ultramar. Con ello, se inicia una lucha por la independencia, que se alargará hasta finales del siglo XIX.
Al llegar al trono de Fernando VII, hubo que enfrentar a los separatistas. Puso todos los medios para conseguir la permanencia de las provincias bajo soberanía española, y con el ánimo de premiar a los españoles leales a su patria y al Rey, la «acrisolada lealtad, el celo y patriotismo, desprendimiento, valor y otras virtudes que tanto los individuos de la milicia como de todas las clases y jerarquías del Estado han mostrado y mostraren en adelante en favor de la defensa y conservación de aquellos remotos países» Fernando VII crea la REAL ORDEN AMERICANA DE ISABEL LA CATOLICA.
El nombre elegido fue el de su augusta Antepasada, a cuya iniciativa e impronta, se debió el descubrimiento de América. Con el fin de premiar la lealtad de tantos españoles que se mantenían fieles a sus raíces y su patria, y el mérito contratado en favor de la defensa y la conservación de aquellos dominios, crea la Orden, de carácter inicialmente militar, siguiendo la tradición española, bajo la protección de un Santo Patrono, en este caso a Santa Isabel, Reina de Portugal.
En sus primeros Estatutos se establecían tres categorías; Gran cruz, Caballeros de primera y de segunda clase; a todos ellos se les reconocía la nobleza personal.
 Fernando VII dio los primeros pasos de la Orden nombrando 15 grandes cruces, 14 caballeros de primera clase y 3 de segunda. Nombró el Capítulo Supremo, presidido por el Duque de San Carlos. En aquella primera reunión, se propuso al Rey el cambio de clases, que quedaría de la siguiente manera: Gran Cruz, Comendador y Caballero. Para los indigenas americanos se estableció la medalla especial.
El Papa Pío VII expedía la bula Víros magnos ín regno, el 26 de mayo de 1816, aprobando y confirmando la nueva Orden Americana, y extendiendo a sus caballeros y ministros las mismas indulgencias y gracias espirituales que a los de la Orden de Carlos III. El 20 de enero de 1816 se escogió para sede de la Orden la iglesia de Santa María la Real de la Almudena.
La orden perdió su sentido inicial desde la perdida de las provincias americanas. Sin fondos y sin sentido, fue cayendo en el ostracismo.
En 1847, se acometió una importante reforma de las Órdenes Reales españolas. Los capítulos solemnes continuaron celebrándose en el reinado de Isabel II. La Real Orden de Isabel la Católica, dejó de denominarse Americana en virtud del Real Decreto de 15 de abril de 1889, y fue considerada la condecoración general y propia del mérito civil, entregándose desde ese momento, a los españoles que se distinguían por sus méritos al servicio de España.
La Real Orden de Isabel la Católica fue la única que no suprimió en 1931. Durante la guerra civil ambos bandos en lucha estuvieron entregando las condecoraciones.
Actualmente, la Orden se rige por el Real Decreto 2395/1998, de 6 de noviembre, mediante el cual han sido derogadas todas las normas anteriores, salvo los estatutos fundacionales. Según su artículo primero, la Real Orden de Isabel la Católica tiene por objeto premiar aquellos comportamientos extraordinarios de carácter civil, realizados por personas españolas y extranjeras, que redunden en beneficio de la Nación, o que contribuyan, de modo relevante, a favorecer las relaciones de amistad y cooperación de la Nación española con el resto de la comunidad internacional.
SM el Rey es el Gran Maestre de la Real Orden, y puede ostentar diariamente las insignias. Su sede y oficinas se encuentran en el Ministerio de Asuntos Exteriores, ya que su Gran Canciller es el Ministro de Asuntos Exteriores, y la Canónica sigue estando en la Catedral de Nuestra Señora de la Almudena.
Las categorías de la Real Orden de Isabel la Católica consta de las siguientes categorías comunes para ambos sexos:
Collar
Placa del Collar
Encomienda (lazo de dama opcional)
Encomienda
Placa de encomienda
Cruz (lazo de dama opcional)
Cruz
Placa de la Cruz
Oficial (lazo de dama opcional)
Oficial
Cruz de plata (lazo de dama opcional)
Cruz de Plata
Medalla de plata (lazo de dama opcional)
Medalla de plata
Medalla de bronce (lazo de dama opcional)
Medalla de bronce
El emblema de la Orden es una cruz de oro coronada con una corona olímpica o de cogollos de olivo, formada de cuatro brazos iguales, esmaltada de color rojo, conforme al pabellón español, e interpoladas con los brazos unas ráfagas de oro; En su centro habrá sobrepuesto un escudo circular en que se verán los esmaltes de las dos columnas y dos globos o mundos, que representarán las Indias, enlazados con una cinta, y cubiertos ambos con una corona imperial, llenando el campo del escudo los rayos de luz, que partiendo de los mismos globos se extienden en todos los sentidos. En su anverso, y sobre campo blanco, se leerá de letra de oro la siguiente leyenda: «A LA LEALTAD ACRISOLADA».
La cruz será la mismo pero en el anverso, con la diferencia de que en él habrá de leerse: «POR ISABEL LA CATÓLICA, FERNANDO VII».
Los collares, son propiedad de la Orden y deben ser devueltos tras el fallecimiento del titular de la mismas.
https://casarealdeespana.es/2016/02/08/orden-de-isabel-la-catolica/ |
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In 1924, the regime of Miguel Primo de Rivera granted Spanish citizenship to a part of the Sephardic Jewish diaspora.[8] The edict was formally and symbolically revoked on December 16, 1968,[9] following the Second Vatican Council, by the regime of Francisco Franco. This occurred a full century after Jews had openly begun to practice their religion in Spain and synagogues were once more legal places of worship under Spain's Laws of Religious Freedom. |
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Christopher Columbus may have been a Spanish Jew, according to a new documentary
OCTOBER 16, 20245:00 AM ET
Christopher Columbus landing in America with the Piuzon Brothers bearing flags and crosses, 1492.
Hulton Archive/Getty Images/Hulton Archive
SEVILLE, Spain — Conventional history states Christopher Columbus was from Genoa, Italy, but he may have been, in fact, a Sephardic Jew from the eastern Iberian Peninsula, according to a new documentary by Spain’s national broadcaster that also rekindles questions of religious persecution and the treatment of Indigenous communities.
Broadcast by Spanish national public network RTVE on Oct. 12, the day of Spain’s national holiday marking the arrival of Columbus’ expedition to the Americas, Colón ADN, su verdadero origen, or “Columbus’ DNA, his true origin,” follows forensic medical expert José Antonio Lorente as he studies multiple hypotheses regarding the origin of the famed explorer and contrasts the information with scientific and historical evidence.
The documentary concludes that the most plausible theory is one maintained by a Catalan architect who has dedicated many years trying to demonstrate that Cristóbal Colón — Columbus’ name in Spanish — was a Jewish man from the region of Valencia, on the Mediterranean coast of eastern Spain.
Some in the scientific community, however, have expressed skepticism about the methods and scientific rigor that Lorente employs, and highlight the fact that Lorente’s findings have not been presented for peer review yet.
Columbus’ origins come into question
Few things about Christopher Columbus can be stated as facts. Legend has it that at a party with noble Spaniards he demonstrated the possibility of the impossible by making an egg stand on its tip. There is a trick, of course: he flattened the edge of the egg without breaking it.
But there are some details that have not been questioned by most people through the years. Like the fact that Columbus came from Genoa, in Italy. That he persuaded Spain’s Catholic monarchs to sponsor an impossible voyage to the Indies traveling west instead of east from Spain.
Lorente, a forensic medical expert at the University of Granada, has researched Columbus’ origin for the past 22 years. In the documentary, he considers a number of theories about the origin of Columbus, examining them against DNA evidence and historical records.
Finally, Lorente arrives at the garden of Francesc Albardaner, a Catalan architect who authored the book La catalanitat de Colom. According to Albardaner, Columbus was a Sephardic Jew, part of the that Jewish diaspora associated with the Iberian Peninsula. Columbus would have followed Jewish traditions and customs, although in the public sphere he acted as Christian. He was born into a family of silk weavers from the Spanish city of Valencia, where there was a long tradition within the Jewish community of silk weavers.
But in order to determine Columbus’ ancestry, Lorente has to overcome a first hurdle, to shed light on the question of where the true remains of the sailor are.
People visit the tomb of Christopher Columbus at the Cathedral of Seville on October 11.
Cristina Quicler/AFP via Getty Images
Columbus’ disputed resting place
The mausoleum of Christopher Columbus here in Seville features four bronze heralds representing the four Spanish kingdoms before they came under a single rule, in 1469. On the heralds’ shoulders, a massive tomb that the Catholic Church and local authorities assure contains the remains of Columbus.
But Columbus’ resting place has been in dispute for centuries. The Columbus Lighthouse is a huge mausoleum monument to the explorer located in Santo Domingo, capital of the Dominican Republic. The monument was inaugurated in 1992 and, according to Dominican authorities, Columbus’ remains are inside the mausoleum.
There seems to be agreement among historians about the fact that the remains of Columbus, who died in Spain in 1506, were at one point taken back to Hispaniola, the Caribbean island containing the Dominican Republic and Haiti. But that's where historical agreement ends. Some claim the remains of Columbus made their way back to Spain, while others say the wrong bones were taken from Santo Domingo, and therefore Columbus remains in the Dominican Republic.
In Columbus’ DNA, his true origin, Lorente uses DNA from Hernando Colón, son of Christopher Columbus, and distant cousin Diego Colón to verify that the few bones that were housed at the Cathedral of Seville are indeed the true remains of the sailor.
Lorente’s conclusion is unequivocal: Christopher Columbus was of Jewish descent. That led to a process of deduction based on historical evidence. The documentary states that during Columbus’ time there were only an estimated 10,000 to 15,000 Jewish people living on the Italian peninsula. By contrast, there were about 200,000 Jewish people living in what is now Spain, an estimate that may be low, since tens of thousands of Jewish people had converted to Catholicism over the previous century, victims of constant persecution.
Also in the documentary, Albardaner, the Catalan architect, says Genoa had expelled its Jewish population in the 12th century. There were virtually no Jewish people living in Genoa in the times of Columbus, who lived from 1451 to 1506, and Jewish people doing business were only allowed to enter the city for three days at a time.
If the DNA evidence studied by Lorente suggests Columbus was a Jewish man, then it becomes highly improbable that he was from Genoa, according to Albardaner.
Forensic medical expert José Antonio Lorente examines DNA evidence in an image from the documentary Colón ADN, su verdadero origen.
Story Producciones
Why would Columbus lie about his heritage?
On Oct. 19, 1469, a young couple was married in Valladolid, Spain. Queen Isabella and King Ferdinand II, the Catholic monarchs, came to be known for a number of historical achievements, such as unifying the kingdoms that now comprise Spain, or the so-called reconquista (reconquering) of Al-Andalus, the vast region of southern Spain that had been under Muslim control for centuries. But during the Catholic monarchs’ rule the Spanish Inquisition also acquired unprecedented powers. A judicial institution linked to the Roman Catholic Church, the Inquisition sought to identify heretics and order Jews and Muslims to convert to Catholicism, using brutal methods.
But Muslims were not the only people living in the Iberian Peninsula that the Catholic monarchs seemed to want to get rid of. In 1492 the monarchs signed the Alhambra Decree, which ordered the expulsion of Jewish people, seeking to eliminate their influence on Spain's large population of converts, and to make sure its members did not revert to Judaism. The monarchs ordered the remaining Jews to convert or face expulsion from Spain.
Devin Naar, Sephardic studies program chair at the University of Washington, told the BBC's Newshour that escaping persecution in the times of the Catholic monarchs and the Spanish Inquisition was not as easy as simply converting to Catholicism:
“What the Spanish Inquisition did was that it targeted, not Jews as Jews and not Muslims as Muslims, but rather initially and specifically those who were of Jewish or Muslim origin, but who had converted to Catholicism. And there was the perception that they had continued to practice Judaism on one hand or Islam on the other hand in secret. The Inquisition used a variety of different means to try to coerce confessions. It used all of the different medieval tools that we might think about, including burning at the stake,” Naar said.
So Columbus may have been hiding his Sephardic origins to avoid stigmatization, persecution, or even death.
Naar adds that the claim that Columbus was of Spanish-Jewish origin or converso origin — conversos is what the Spanish called Jewish converts to Catholicism and their descendants — has been around for more than 100 years.
Disagreement from the scientific community
The release of the documentary on RTVE has sparked criticisms from the scientific community. Most notably, a recent article published by the Spanish newspaper El País has several experts questioning the process Lorente used to reach his conclusions.
"I don't understand how data that the scientific community has not yet endorsed is presented to society, which puts the data itself and the hypotheses proposed at risk," Antonio Alonso, a geneticist and former director of Spain’s National Institute of Toxicology and Forensic Sciences is quoted as saying.
Rodrigo Barquera, an expert in archaeogenetics at Germany’s Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, told El País he was surprised that Lorente’s findings had been shared without prior scrutiny from others in the scientific community.
Even the DNA angle is questioned by Antonio Salas, who directs the Population Genetics in Biomedicine group at the Health Research Institute of Santiago de Compostela, telling El País: “The documentary promised to focus on DNA analysis. However, the genetic information it offers is very limited.”
Lorente, in response, told El País that the documentary is a film, not a scientific publication, and he promises scientific findings will be presented in the near future.
The evolving role of Columbus in history
Columbus’ actions, once regarded as accomplishments, have become a symbol to many as a starting point for a history of abuse. To others, Columbus, 1492, and what came after, are still worth celebrating.
To this day, Spain marks Oct. 12 as a national holiday, also widely known as Hispanic Heritage Day, to commemorate the arrival of Columbus’ expedition in the Americas. And to this day, Spain’s popular culture has not been able to shake up the use of the controversial term “Descubrimiento de América” (the discovery of America) to refer to that moment in history.
In Latin America and to many U.S.-based Latinos and Native Americans, the so-called “discovery of the Americas” was only the beginning of a cruel history of extermination, subjugation and colonization of its native people and lands. This continues to play a role in international diplomacy. Just last month, the recently elected first woman president of Mexico did not invite the Spanish king to her inauguration as part of an ongoing spat between the two countries over the history of Spanish colonization. Spain’s current government, led by the progressive Socialist Party, said that Mexico’s decision was unacceptable.
Protesters topple a statue of Christopher Columbus during a demonstration against government in Barranquilla, Colombia on June 28, 2021.
Mery Granados Herrera/AFP via Getty Images
The United States has recognized Columbus Day as a federal holiday since 1934, when President Roosevelt designated the standing. For many in the Italian American community, the presumed fact that Columbus was originally from Italy has been a reason for pride and celebration. In 2022, however, President Biden issued a proclamation on Indigenous Peoples Day, and both are observed on the second Monday of October, but most government websites continue to list “Columbus Day” as the federal holiday the nation celebrated this week.
Spain did take measures to remediate the harm done to Sephardic Jews. In 2015 the Spanish Parliament approved an act granting Spanish citizenship to Sephardic Jews with Spanish origins. Spain has not provided reparations to descendants of Spanish Muslims who once lived in the Iberian Peninsula.
https://www.npr.org/2024/10/16/g-s1-28462/christopher-columbus-spanish-jew-documentary |
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Hagia Sophia
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Hagia Sophia (Turkish: Ayasofya; Ancient Greek: Ἁγία Σοφία, romanized: Hagía Sophía; Latin: Sancta Sapientia; lit. 'Holy Wisdom'), officially the Hagia Sophia Grand Mosque (Turkish: Ayasofya-i Kebir Cami-i Şerifi; Greek: Μεγάλο Τζαμί της Αγίας Σοφίας),[3] is a mosque and former church serving as a major cultural and historical site in Istanbul, Turkey. The last of three church buildings to be successively erected on the site by the Eastern Roman Empire, it was completed in AD 537. The site was an Eastern rite church from AD 360 to 1453, except for a brief time as a Latin Catholic church between the Fourth Crusade and 1261.[4] After the fall of Constantinople in 1453, it served as a mosque until 1935, when it became a museum. In 2020, the site once again became a mosque.
The current structure was built by the Byzantine emperor Justinian I as the Christian cathedral of Constantinople for the Byzantine Empire between 532 and 537, and was designed by the Greek geometers Isidore of Miletus and Anthemius of Tralles.[5] It was formally called the Church of God's Holy Wisdom (Greek: Ναὸς τῆς Ἁγίας τοῦ Θεοῦ Σοφίας, romanized: Naòs tês Hagías toû Theoû Sophías)[6][7] and upon completion became the world's largest interior space and among the first to employ a fully pendentive dome. It is considered the epitome of Byzantine architecture[8] and is said to have "changed the history of architecture".[9] The present Justinianic building was the third church of the same name to occupy the site, as the prior one had been destroyed in the Nika riots. As the episcopal see of the ecumenical patriarch of Constantinople, it remained the world's largest cathedral for nearly a thousand years, until the Seville Cathedral was completed in 1520. Beginning with subsequent Byzantine architecture, Hagia Sophia became the paradigmatic Orthodox church form, and its architectural style was emulated by Ottoman mosques a thousand years later.[10] It has been described as "holding a unique position in the Christian world"[10] and as an architectural and cultural icon of Byzantine and Eastern Orthodox civilization.[10][11][12]
The religious and spiritual centre of the Eastern Orthodox Church for nearly one thousand years, the church was dedicated to the Holy Wisdom.[13][14][15] It was where the excommunication of Patriarch Michael I Cerularius was officially delivered by Humbert of Silva Candida, the envoy of Pope Leo IX in 1054, an act considered the start of the East–West Schism. In 1204, it was converted during the Fourth Crusade into a Catholic cathedral under the Latin Empire, before being returned to the Eastern Orthodox Church upon the restoration of the Byzantine Empire in 1261. Enrico Dandolo, the doge of Venice who led the Fourth Crusade and the 1204 Sack of Constantinople, was buried in the church.
After the fall of Constantinople to the Ottoman Empire in 1453,[16] it was converted to a mosque by Mehmed the Conqueror and became the principal mosque of Istanbul until the 1616 construction of the Sultan Ahmed Mosque.[17][18] Upon its conversion, the bells, altar, iconostasis, ambo, and baptistery were removed, while iconography, such as the mosaic depictions of Jesus, Mary, Christian saints and angels were removed or plastered over.[19] Islamic architectural additions included four minarets, a minbar and a mihrab. The Byzantine architecture of the Hagia Sophia served as inspiration for many other religious buildings including the Hagia Sophia in Thessaloniki, Panagia Ekatontapiliani, the Şehzade Mosque, the Süleymaniye Mosque, the Rüstem Pasha Mosque and the Kılıç Ali Pasha Complex. The patriarchate moved to the Church of the Holy Apostles, which became the city's cathedral.
The complex remained a mosque until 1931, when it was closed to the public for four years. It was re-opened in 1935 as a museum under the secular Republic of Turkey, and the building was Turkey's most visited tourist attraction as of 2019.[20]
In July 2020, the Council of State annulled the 1934 decision to establish the museum, and the Hagia Sophia was reclassified as a mosque. The 1934 decree was ruled to be unlawful under both Ottoman and Turkish law as Hagia Sophia's waqf, endowed by Sultan Mehmed, had designated the site a mosque; proponents of the decision argued the Hagia Sophia was the personal property of the sultan. The decision to designate Hagia Sophia as a mosque was highly controversial. It resulted in divided opinions and drew condemnation from the Turkish opposition, UNESCO, the World Council of Churches and the International Association of Byzantine Studies, as well as numerous international leaders, while several Muslim leaders in Turkey and other countries welcomed its conversion into a mosque.
Church of Constantius II
[edit]
 Hagia Sophia, Istanbul, Turkey, ca. 1897.
The first church on the site was known as the Magna Ecclesia (Μεγάλη Ἐκκλησία, Megálē Ekklēsíā, 'Great Church')[21][22] because of its size compared to the sizes of the contemporary churches in the city.[13] According to the Chronicon Paschale, the church was consecrated on 15 February 360, during the reign of the emperor Constantius II (r. 337–361) by the Arian bishop Eudoxius of Antioch.[23][24] It was built next to the area where the Great Palace was being developed. According to the 5th-century ecclesiastical historian Socrates of Constantinople, the emperor Constantius had c. 346 "constructed the Great Church alongside that called Irene which because it was too small, the emperor's father [Constantine] had enlarged and beautified".[25][23] A tradition which is not older than the 7th or 8th century reports that the edifice was built by Constantius' father, Constantine the Great (r. 306–337).[23] Hesychius of Miletus wrote that Constantine built Hagia Sophia with a wooden roof and removed 427 (mostly pagan) statues from the site.[26] The 12th-century chronicler Joannes Zonaras reconciles the two opinions, writing that Constantius had repaired the edifice consecrated by Eusebius of Nicomedia, after it had collapsed.[23] Since Eusebius was the bishop of Constantinople from 339 to 341, and Constantine died in 337, it seems that the first church was erected by Constantius.[23]
 View of the dome interior
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SABADO=SABIDURIA=SO-PHI-A
SOPHIE NEVEU
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Hoja informativa del proyecto Viking
Cortesía de la NASA
Viking fue la culminación de una serie de misiones para explorar el planeta Marte ; comenzaron en 1964 con el Mariner 4, y continuaron con los sobrevuelos del Mariner 6 y 7 en 1969, y la misión orbital del Mariner 9 en 1971 y 1972.
La Viking fue diseñada para orbitar Marte y aterrizar y operar en la superficie del planeta. Se construyeron dos naves espaciales idénticas, cada una compuesta por un módulo de aterrizaje y un orbitador.
El Centro de Investigación Langley de la NASA en Hampton, Virginia, fue el responsable de la gestión del proyecto Viking desde su inicio en 1968 hasta el 1 de abril de 1978, cuando el Laboratorio de Propulsión a Chorro asumió la tarea. Martin Marietta Aerospace en Denver, Colorado, desarrolló los módulos de aterrizaje. El Centro de Investigación Lewis de la NASA en Cleveland, Ohio, fue el responsable de los vehículos de lanzamiento Titán-Centauro. La tarea inicial del JPL fue el desarrollo de los orbitadores, el seguimiento y la adquisición de datos, y el Centro de Control de Misión y Computación.
La NASA lanzó ambas naves espaciales desde Cabo Cañaveral, Florida: la Viking 1 el 20 de agosto de 1975 y la Viking 2 el 9 de septiembre de 1975. Las sondas fueron esterilizadas antes del lanzamiento para evitar la contaminación de Marte con organismos de la Tierra. La nave espacial pasó casi un año navegando hacia Marte. La Viking 1 alcanzó la órbita de Marte el 19 de junio de 1976; la Viking 2 comenzó a orbitar Marte el 7 de agosto de 1976.
Después de estudiar las fotografías del orbitador, el equipo de certificación del sitio de aterrizaje de Viking consideró que el lugar de aterrizaje original de Viking 1 no era seguro. El equipo examinó los sitios cercanos y Viking 1 aterrizó el 20 de julio de 1976 en la ladera occidental de Chryse Planitia (las llanuras de oro) a 22,3° de latitud norte y 48,0° de longitud.
El equipo de certificación del sitio también decidió que el lugar de aterrizaje planeado para Viking 2 no era seguro después de examinar fotografías de alta resolución. La certificación de un nuevo lugar de aterrizaje se llevó a cabo a tiempo para un aterrizaje en Marte el 3 de septiembre de 1976, en Utopia Planitia, a 47,7° de latitud norte y 225,8° de longitud.
La misión Viking estaba prevista para continuar durante 90 días después del aterrizaje. Cada orbitador y módulo de aterrizaje funcionó mucho más allá de su vida útil prevista. El Viking Orbiter 1 superó los cuatro años de operaciones de vuelo activas en la órbita de Marte.
La misión principal del proyecto Viking finalizó el 15 de noviembre de 1976, 11 días antes de la conjunción superior de Marte (su paso por detrás del Sol). Después de la conjunción, a mediados de diciembre de 1976, los controladores restablecieron las operaciones de telemetría y comando y comenzaron las operaciones de la misión extendida.
La primera nave espacial que dejó de funcionar fue la Viking Orbiter 2 el 25 de julio de 1978; la nave espacial había utilizado todo el gas de su sistema de control de actitud, que mantenía los paneles solares de la nave apuntando al Sol para alimentar el orbitador. Cuando la nave espacial se alejó de la línea del Sol, los controladores del JPL enviaron órdenes para apagar el transmisor de la Viking Orbiter 2.
En 1978, la Viking Orbiter 1 empezó a quedarse sin gas para el control de actitud, pero gracias a una cuidadosa planificación para conservar el suministro restante, los ingenieros descubrieron que era posible seguir adquiriendo datos científicos a un nivel reducido durante otros dos años. El suministro de gas finalmente se agotó y la Viking Orbiter 1 dejó de funcionar el 7 de agosto de 1980, después de 1.489 órbitas alrededor de Marte.
Los últimos datos de la sonda Viking Lander 2 llegaron a la Tierra el 11 de abril de 1980. La sonda Lander 1 realizó su última transmisión a la Tierra el 11 de noviembre de 1982. Los controladores del JPL intentaron, sin éxito, durante otros seis meses y medio recuperar el contacto con la sonda Viking Lander 1. La misión finalizó el 21 de mayo de 1983.
Con una sola excepción (los instrumentos sísmicos), los instrumentos científicos adquirieron más datos de los esperados. El sismómetro de la sonda Viking Lander 1 no funcionó después del aterrizaje y el sismómetro de la sonda Viking Lander 2 detectó solo un evento que pudo haber sido sísmico. Sin embargo, proporcionó datos sobre la velocidad del viento en el lugar de aterrizaje para complementar la información del experimento meteorológico y mostró que Marte tiene un fondo sísmico muy bajo.
Los tres experimentos de biología descubrieron una actividad química inesperada y enigmática en el suelo marciano, pero no aportaron pruebas claras de la presencia de microorganismos vivos en el suelo cercano a los lugares de aterrizaje. Según los biólogos de la misión, Marte se autoesteriliza. Creen que la combinación de la radiación ultravioleta solar que satura la superficie, la extrema sequedad del suelo y la naturaleza oxidante de la química del suelo impiden la formación de organismos vivos en el suelo marciano. La cuestión de si hubo vida en Marte en algún momento del pasado lejano sigue abierta.
Los instrumentos de cromatografía de gases y espectrómetro de masas de los módulos de aterrizaje no detectaron ningún signo de química orgánica en ninguno de los dos lugares de aterrizaje, pero sí proporcionaron un análisis preciso y definitivo de la composición de la atmósfera marciana y encontraron elementos traza no detectados anteriormente. Los espectrómetros de fluorescencia de rayos X midieron la composición elemental del suelo marciano.
La sonda Viking midió las propiedades físicas y magnéticas del suelo. A medida que descendían hacia la superficie, también midieron la composición y las propiedades físicas de la atmósfera superior marciana.
Los dos módulos de aterrizaje monitorizaron continuamente el tiempo en los lugares de aterrizaje. El tiempo en pleno verano marciano era repetitivo, pero en otras estaciones se volvía variable y más interesante. Aparecieron variaciones cíclicas en los patrones meteorológicos (probablemente el paso de ciclones y anticiclones alternos). Las temperaturas atmosféricas en el lugar de aterrizaje sur (Viking Lander 1) fueron tan altas como -14 °C (7 °F) al mediodía, y la temperatura de verano antes del amanecer fue de -77 °C (-107 °F). En contraste, las temperaturas diurnas en el lugar de aterrizaje norte (Viking Lander 2) durante las tormentas de polvo de mediados de invierno variaron tan poco como 4 °C (7 °F) algunos días. La temperatura más baja antes del amanecer fue de -120 °C (-184 °F), aproximadamente el punto de congelación del dióxido de carbono. Una fina capa de escarcha de agua cubría el suelo alrededor de Viking Lander 2 cada invierno.
La presión barométrica varía en cada lugar de aterrizaje cada seis meses, porque el dióxido de carbono, el principal componente de la atmósfera, se congela formando un inmenso casquete polar, alternativamente en cada polo. El dióxido de carbono forma una gran capa de nieve y luego se evapora de nuevo con la llegada de la primavera en cada hemisferio. Cuando el casquete polar sur era más grande, la presión media diaria observada por la Viking Lander 1 era tan baja como 6,8 milibares; en otras épocas del año era tan alta como 9,0 milibares. Las presiones en el lugar de aterrizaje de la Viking Lander 2 fueron de 7,3 y 10,8 milibares. (A modo de comparación, la presión superficial en la Tierra a nivel del mar es de unos 1.000 milibares).
Los vientos marcianos suelen soplar más lentamente de lo esperado. Los científicos habían esperado que alcanzaran velocidades de varios cientos de kilómetros por hora a partir de las tormentas de polvo globales observadas, pero ninguno de los módulos de aterrizaje registró ráfagas superiores a los 120 kilómetros por hora y las velocidades medias fueron considerablemente inferiores. No obstante, los orbitadores observaron más de una docena de pequeñas tormentas de polvo. Durante el primer verano austral se produjeron dos tormentas de polvo globales, con una diferencia de unos cuatro meses terrestres. Ambas tormentas oscurecieron el Sol en los lugares de aterrizaje durante un tiempo y ocultaron la mayor parte de la superficie del planeta a las cámaras de los orbitadores. Los fuertes vientos que provocaron las tormentas soplaron en el hemisferio sur.
Las fotografías tomadas desde los módulos de aterrizaje y los orbitadores superaron las expectativas en cuanto a calidad y calidad. El total superó las 4.500 tomadas desde los módulos de aterrizaje y las 52.000 tomadas desde los orbitadores. Los módulos de aterrizaje proporcionaron la primera mirada de cerca a la superficie, monitorearon las variaciones en la opacidad atmosférica a lo largo de varios años marcianos y determinaron el tamaño medio de los aerosoles atmosféricos. Las cámaras de los orbitadores observaron terrenos nuevos y a menudo desconcertantes y proporcionaron detalles más claros sobre características conocidas, incluidas algunas observaciones en color y estéreo. Los orbitadores de Viking cartografiaron el 97 por ciento de la superficie marciana.
Los cartografiadores térmicos infrarrojos y los detectores de agua atmosférica de los orbitadores adquirieron datos casi a diario, observando el planeta en baja y alta resolución. La enorme cantidad de datos de los dos instrumentos requerirá un tiempo considerable para el análisis y la comprensión de la meteorología global de Marte. Viking también determinó definitivamente que el manto de hielo residual del polo norte (que sobrevive al verano boreal) es hielo de agua, en lugar de dióxido de carbono congelado (hielo seco) como se creía anteriormente.
El análisis de las señales de radio de los módulos de aterrizaje y los orbitadores (incluidos los datos Doppler, de distancia y de ocultación, y la intensidad de la señal del enlace de retransmisión entre el módulo de aterrizaje y el orbitador) proporcionó una variedad de información valiosa.
Otros descubrimientos importantes de la misión Viking incluyen:
- La superficie marciana es un tipo de arcilla rica en hierro que contiene una sustancia altamente oxidante que libera oxígeno cuando se moja.
- La superficie no contiene moléculas orgánicas detectables a nivel de partes por mil millones: menos, de hecho, que las muestras de suelo traídas de la Luna por los astronautas del Apolo.
- El nitrógeno, nunca antes detectado, es un componente significativo de la atmósfera marciana, y el enriquecimiento de los isótopos más pesados de nitrógeno y argón en relación con los isótopos más ligeros implica que la densidad atmosférica era mucho mayor que en el pasado distante.
- Los cambios en la superficie marciana se producen con extrema lentitud, al menos en los lugares de aterrizaje de la sonda Viking. Durante la duración de la misión, solo se produjeron unos pocos cambios menores.
- La mayor concentración de vapor de agua en la atmósfera se da cerca del borde del casquete polar norte a mediados del verano. Desde el verano hasta el otoño, la concentración máxima se desplaza hacia el ecuador, con una disminución del 30 por ciento en la abundancia máxima. En el verano austral, el planeta está seco, probablemente también como efecto de las tormentas de polvo.
- La densidad de ambos satélites de Marte es baja (unos dos gramos por centímetro cúbico), lo que implica que se originaron como asteroides capturados por la gravedad de Marte. La superficie de Fobos está marcada por dos familias de estrías paralelas, probablemente fracturas causadas por un gran impacto que casi pudo haber destrozado a Fobos.
- Las mediciones del tiempo de ida y vuelta de las señales de radio entre la Tierra y la sonda Viking, realizadas mientras Marte se encontraba más allá del Sol (cerca de las conjunciones solares), han determinado que el retraso de las señales es causado por el campo gravitatorio del Sol. El resultado confirma la predicción de Albert Einstein con una precisión estimada del 0,1 por ciento, veinte veces mayor que cualquier otra prueba.
- La presión atmosférica varía un 30 por ciento durante el año marciano porque el dióxido de carbono se condensa y sublima en los casquetes polares.
- La capa norte permanente es hielo de agua; la capa sur probablemente retiene algo de hielo de dióxido de carbono durante el verano.
- El vapor de agua es relativamente abundante sólo en el extremo norte durante el verano, pero el agua subterránea (permafrost) cubre gran parte, si no todo, del planeta.
- Los hemisferios norte y sur son drásticamente diferentes climáticamente, debido a las tormentas de polvo globales que se originan en el sur en verano.
https://solarviews-com.translate.goog/span/vikingfs.htm?_x_tr_sl=en&_x_tr_tl=es&_x_tr_hl=es&_x_tr_pto=sc
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July 25 Events in History
June 18, 2024
July 25th has witnessed a series of pivotal events that have shaped the course of history across various fields.
From groundbreaking achievements in aviation and medical science to significant political shifts and cultural moments, this day encapsulates a diverse array of historical milestones.
Join us as we explore some of the most notable occurrences on this date, delving into their impacts and legacies that continue to resonate today.
July 25th – On this Day in History
306 – Constantine I proclaimed Roman Emperor
On July 25, 306, Constantine the Great was declared Roman Emperor by his troops after the death of his father, Constantius Chlorus, in Eboracum (modern-day York, England).
This proclamation marked the beginning of Constantine’s reign, during which he would play a crucial role in shaping the future of the Roman Empire.
Also Read: July 24 Events in History
His subsequent policies and reforms, including the Edict of Milan in 313, which granted religious tolerance to Christians, had a lasting impact on both the empire and the Christian religion. Constantine’s rule laid the foundation for the Byzantine Empire and the spread of Christianity throughout Europe.
315 – Arch of Constantine inaugurated in Rome
The Arch of Constantine, one of Rome’s most famous monuments, was inaugurated on July 25, 315. Erected to commemorate Constantine I’s victory over Maxentius at the Battle of the Milvian Bridge in 312, the arch stands near the Colosseum.
It is a triumphal arch adorned with sculptures and reliefs that celebrate Constantine’s victory and his consolidation of power.
The arch not only served as a political symbol of Constantine’s authority but also showcased the artistic and architectural styles of the time, incorporating elements from earlier monuments to glorify the emperor’s achievements.
1261 – Constantinople recaptured by Nicaean forces, ending the Latin Empire
On July 25, 1261, forces from the Empire of Nicaea recaptured Constantinople, ending the Latin Empire established by the Fourth Crusade in 1204. This event marked the restoration of the Byzantine Empire under Emperor Michael VIII Palaiologos.
Also Read: July 26th – On this Day in History
The recapture of the city was a significant turning point, as it restored Byzantine control over its historic capital. However, the empire never fully recovered its former power and prestige, struggling against internal strife and external threats until its eventual fall to the Ottoman Turks in 1453.
1593 – Henry IV of France converted from Protestantism to Catholicism
On July 25, 1593, Henry IV of France converted from Protestantism to Catholicism, famously stating, “Paris is well worth a mass.” This pragmatic decision was made to secure his position as king and bring peace to a country torn apart by religious wars.
His conversion helped to end the French Wars of Religion, a series of conflicts between Catholics and Huguenots (French Protestants), and paved the way for the Edict of Nantes in 1598, which granted religious tolerance to Protestants.
Henry IV’s reign brought stability and prosperity to France and earned him the nickname “Good King Henry.”
1759 – French defeated at the Battle of Ticonderoga in the Seven Years’ War
On July 25, 1759, during the Seven Years’ War, British forces under General Jeffrey Amherst captured the French stronghold of Fort Carillon (later renamed Fort Ticonderoga) in present-day New York. This victory was part of a larger campaign to gain control over the strategic waterways of North America.
The fall of Ticonderoga marked a turning point in the war in favor of the British, who sought to expand their colonial territories at the expense of the French. The victory opened the way for further British advances into Canada and played a significant role in shaping the future of North America.
1797 – Horatio Nelson lost more than 300 men and his right arm during the failed conquest of Tenerife
On July 25, 1797, British Admiral Horatio Nelson led an attack on Santa Cruz de Tenerife in the Canary Islands during the French Revolutionary Wars. The expedition aimed to capture the strategic port, but it ended in failure.
During the battle, Nelson sustained a severe wound, resulting in the amputation of his right arm. Despite this setback, he displayed remarkable resilience and continued his naval career, eventually becoming one of Britain’s greatest naval heroes. This event highlighted his determination and contributed to his legendary status.
1814 – War of 1812: Battle of Lundy’s Lane, one of the bloodiest battles of the war, takes place
The Battle of Lundy’s Lane, one of the bloodiest battles of the War of 1812, took place on July 25, 1814, near Niagara Falls. American and British forces clashed in a fierce and indecisive engagement that lasted well into the night.
Despite high casualties on both sides, neither could claim a decisive victory. The battle demonstrated the intensity of the conflict along the Canadian-American border and underscored the strategic stalemate that characterized much of the war. It also highlighted the valor and resilience of both American and British troops.
1837 – First commercial use of an electric telegraph
On July 25, 1837, the first commercial use of an electric telegraph took place, marking a significant advancement in communication technology.
Developed by William Fothergill Cooke and Charles Wheatstone in England, the telegraph revolutionized long-distance communication by transmitting messages through electrical signals over wires.
This innovation laid the groundwork for the global telecommunications industry, transforming how information was shared and playing a crucial role in commerce, journalism, and personal communication.
1861 – Congress passed the Crittenden-Johnson Resolution, stating the Civil War was fought to preserve the Union, not to end slavery
On July 25, 1861, the United States Congress passed the Crittenden-Johnson Resolution, asserting that the ongoing Civil War was being fought to preserve the Union, not to interfere with slavery. This resolution aimed to maintain the loyalty of the border states and reassure Northerners who were concerned about the war’s purpose.
However, as the war progressed, the focus shifted increasingly towards the abolition of slavery, especially after the issuance of the Emancipation Proclamation in 1863. The resolution reflects the complex and evolving motivations behind the Union’s war effort.
1866 – Ulysses S. Grant became the first General of the Army
On July 25, 1866, Ulysses S. Grant was appointed as the first General of the Army, a newly created rank in the United States military.
This appointment recognized Grant’s leadership and success as a Union general during the Civil War, particularly his role in key victories at battles such as Vicksburg and Appomattox.
As General of the Army, Grant oversaw the post-war military and played a significant role in Reconstruction efforts. His leadership and strategic acumen contributed to his later election as the 18th President of the United States.
1898 – United States invades Puerto Rico during the Spanish-American War
On July 25, 1898, during the Spanish-American War, American forces led by General Nelson A. Miles invaded Puerto Rico. This military action was part of a larger campaign against Spanish colonial rule in the Caribbean and the Pacific. The invasion was relatively swift, facing limited resistance from Spanish troops.
The conflict resulted in the Treaty of Paris, which ceded Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines to the United States, significantly expanding American influence and marking a turning point in U.S. imperialism.
1909 – Louis Blériot makes the first flight across the English Channel in a heavier-than-air machine
On July 25, 1909, French aviator Louis Blériot made history by becoming the first person to fly across the English Channel in a heavier-than-air aircraft. He piloted his Blériot XI monoplane from Calais, France, to Dover, England, covering the distance in about 37 minutes.
This achievement demonstrated the potential of aviation and marked a significant milestone in the development of powered flight. Blériot’s successful crossing captured the public’s imagination and paved the way for future advancements in aviation technology and commercial air travel.
1917 – Mata Hari sentenced to death for espionage
On July 25, 1917, the renowned dancer and courtesan Mata Hari was sentenced to death by a French military court for espionage during World War I.
Accused of spying for Germany, she was portrayed as a dangerous femme fatale, although the evidence against her was largely circumstantial.
Her trial and execution highlighted the paranoia and fear of espionage that pervaded wartime Europe. Mata Hari’s story has since become legendary, symbolizing the intrigue and moral complexities of espionage during the war.
1943 – Benito Mussolini dismissed as Italian premier; arrested
On July 25, 1943, Italian dictator Benito Mussolini was dismissed from power by King Victor Emmanuel III and subsequently arrested.
This event marked a turning point in World War II, as Mussolini’s downfall signaled the collapse of the Fascist regime in Italy. It also led to Italy’s eventual surrender to the Allies.
The dismissal was influenced by military defeats and widespread dissatisfaction with Mussolini’s leadership. His arrest set the stage for a period of political turmoil in Italy and a shift in the balance of power in the war.
1956 – Suez Crisis: Egyptian President Nasser nationalized the Suez Canal
On July 25, 1956, Egyptian President Gamal Abdel Nasser nationalized the Suez Canal, previously controlled by British and French interests. This bold move aimed to fund the construction of the Aswan High Dam and assert Egypt’s sovereignty.
The nationalization led to the Suez Crisis, where Britain, France, and Israel launched a military intervention to regain control of the canal. The crisis highlighted the waning influence of European colonial powers and the rising importance of Middle Eastern geopolitics during the Cold War. It also marked a significant moment in the decolonization movement.
1965 – Bob Dylan controversially used electric instruments at the Newport Folk Festival
On July 25, 1965, Bob Dylan performed with an electric band at the Newport Folk Festival, marking a significant shift in his musical style. This performance was controversial, as Dylan was primarily known for his acoustic folk music.
The audience’s reaction was mixed, with some embracing the new sound and others feeling betrayed. This moment is often seen as a pivotal point in rock music history, symbolizing the merging of folk and rock genres and highlighting Dylan’s evolving artistry.
1978 – Birth of Louise Brown, the first test-tube baby
On July 25, 1978, Louise Brown, the world’s first baby conceived through in vitro fertilization (IVF), was born in England. Her birth marked a groundbreaking achievement in reproductive technology, offering hope to millions of couples struggling with infertility.
The successful use of IVF opened new possibilities for assisted reproductive treatments and sparked discussions about the ethical and social implications of such technologies. Louise Brown’s birth is celebrated as a milestone in medical science.
1984 – Cosmonaut Svetlana Savitskaya became the first woman to perform a spacewalk
On July 25, 1984, Soviet cosmonaut Svetlana Savitskaya became the first woman to perform a spacewalk. During her mission aboard the Salyut 7 space station, she conducted an extravehicular activity (EVA) that lasted nearly four hours.
This achievement not only highlighted her skills and bravery but also underscored the contributions of women in space exploration. Savitskaya’s spacewalk was a significant step forward for gender equality in the field of astronautics.
1994 – Israel and Jordan sign the Washington Declaration, formally ending the state of war
On July 25, 1994, Israel and Jordan signed the Washington Declaration, officially ending the state of war between the two nations. This agreement was a crucial step towards peace in the Middle East, facilitated by the United States.
It laid the groundwork for the Israel-Jordan Peace Treaty later that year, fostering improved diplomatic and economic relations. The declaration represented a significant move towards regional stability and cooperation.
2000 – Air France Flight 4590 crashes on takeoff in Paris, killing 113
On July 25, 2000, Air France Flight 4590, a Concorde supersonic airliner, crashed shortly after takeoff from Charles de Gaulle Airport in Paris. All 109 passengers and crew on board, along with four people on the ground, were killed.
The crash was caused by a strip of metal left on the runway by another aircraft, which led to a tire explosion and subsequent fuel tank rupture. This tragic event marked the beginning of the end for the Concorde program, highlighting safety concerns and contributing to the aircraft’s eventual retirement in 2003.
https://www.havefunwithhistory.com/july-25/ |
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ANCIENT EGYPTIAN GEODESY - PART II
The great circle alignment from Giza to Alexandria has an azimuth of 51.85° north of due west from Giza (the same angle as the slope of the Great Pyramid). Extended beyond Alexandria, this great circle also crosses over Delphi, Rollright and Newgrange, as well as the city of London.
Map image © VectorGlobe
The azimuth of a great circle alignment from Dendera to Paris is also 51.85° north of due west.
Map image - Roger Hedin
Dendera was dedicated to Isis/Sirius. The ancient Egyptian year began on the date of the heliacal rising of Sirius in mid July. The helical rising of Sirius heralded the annual inundation of the Nile that was essential to the welfare of ancient Egypt. The axis of the temple of Isis at Dendera was aligned 20° south of due east, pointing directly at the rising point of Sirius from the latitude of Dendera.
Robert Bauval describes a number of connections between Isis/Sirius and Paris in Talisman (2004). Isis is shown riding on a boat in many ancient Egyptian drawings and carvings. At the direction of Napoleon, Sirius and a statue of Isis were added to the coat of arms for Paris shown below.
During the French revolution, a statue of Isis known as the Fountain of Regeneration was constructed on the former site of the Bastille. The engraving below commemorated this statue.
Fountain of Regeneration Engraving
The Elysian Fields is described as a place of eternal salvation in the ancient Egyptian Book of the Dead. Named after the Elysian Fields, the Champs Elysees is the main axis of Paris. The names Elysian and Elysees both suggest an association with Isis. The photograph below is facing southeast. The Arc de Triumphe is visible in the background. Beyond the Arc de Triumphe is the Louvre. The azimuth of the Champs Elysees is 26° south of due east, pointing directly at the rising point of Sirius/Isis from the latitude of Paris.
The termination point of the Champs Elysees to the northwest is the Grande Arche, in the foreground of the picture above. The axis of the Grande Arche is offset 6.33° south of the axis of the Champs Elysees. With an azimuth of just over 32° south of due east, the azimuth of the axis of the Grande Arche is the same as the azimuth of the great circle alignment from Paris to Dendera.
The Grande Arche is a nearly perfect cube with a height of 110 meters, a width of 108 meters and a depth of 112 meters. It is often described as a cube with side lengths of 110 meters. This is equal to 210 ancient Egyptian cubits:
110/210 = .5238
.5238 meters is a precise measure of the ancient Egyptian cubit, equating to 20.6222 inches, well within the ± .005 inches in Petrie's 20.62 inch measure of the ancient Egyptian cubit. Instead of the usual comparisons between the cubit and the meter of .52375/1 or .524/1, the best comparative measure may be the simple fraction of 11/21 that is suggested by the Grande Arche.
Image © Insecula.com
The sides of the Grande Arche are divided into 5 x 5 large panels and within each large panel are 7 x 7 smaller panels. Side lengths of 110 meters suggest lengths of 22 meters for the sides of the large panels with lengths of 22/7 meters for the sides of the smaller panels. The fraction 22/7 equals 3.1428, an accurate expression of π that is also found in the dimensions of the Great Pyramid. Side lengths of 210 cubits in the Grande Arche suggest lengths of 42 cubits for the sides of the large panels and 6 cubits for the sides of the smaller panels. This also shows that the relationship between the meter and the cubit is 6/π, using the measure of 22/7 for π:
21/11 = 6/π
22/7 x 21/11 = 6
The northern pyramid at Dashur, known as the Red Pyramid, was the first true (smooth sided) pyramid built in Egypt and it was the last pyramid built prior to construction of the Great Pyramid. The baselengths of the Red Pyramid are 420 cubits (220 meters) long, 20x multiples of 21/11.
Image by Jon Bodsworth
One of the oldest stone circles in England is at Rollright. The diameter of the Rollright circle is 31.4 meters, an accurate expression of π times 10 meters. Given the 6/π relationship between the meter and the cubit, the diameter of the Rollright circle is also 60 ancient Egyptian cubits.
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ANCIENT EGYPTIAN GEODESY - PART II
The great circle alignment from Giza to Alexandria has an azimuth of 51.85° north of due west from Giza (the same angle as the slope of the Great Pyramid). Extended beyond Alexandria, this great circle also crosses over Delphi, Rollright and Newgrange, as well as the city of London.
Map image © VectorGlobe
The azimuth of a great circle alignment from Dendera to Paris is also 51.85° north of due west.
Map image - Roger Hedin
Dendera was dedicated to Isis/Sirius. The ancient Egyptian year began on the date of the heliacal rising of Sirius in mid July. The helical rising of Sirius heralded the annual inundation of the Nile that was essential to the welfare of ancient Egypt. The axis of the temple of Isis at Dendera was aligned 20° south of due east, pointing directly at the rising point of Sirius from the latitude of Dendera.
Robert Bauval describes a number of connections between Isis/Sirius and Paris in Talisman (2004). Isis is shown riding on a boat in many ancient Egyptian drawings and carvings. At the direction of Napoleon, Sirius and a statue of Isis were added to the coat of arms for Paris shown below.
During the French revolution, a statue of Isis known as the Fountain of Regeneration was constructed on the former site of the Bastille. The engraving below commemorated this statue.
Fountain of Regeneration Engraving
The Elysian Fields is described as a place of eternal salvation in the ancient Egyptian Book of the Dead. Named after the Elysian Fields, the Champs Elysees is the main axis of Paris. The names Elysian and Elysees both suggest an association with Isis. The photograph below is facing southeast. The Arc de Triumphe is visible in the background. Beyond the Arc de Triumphe is the Louvre. The azimuth of the Champs Elysees is 26° south of due east, pointing directly at the rising point of Sirius/Isis from the latitude of Paris.
The termination point of the Champs Elysees to the northwest is the Grande Arche, in the foreground of the picture above. The axis of the Grande Arche is offset 6.33° south of the axis of the Champs Elysees. With an azimuth of just over 32° south of due east, the azimuth of the axis of the Grande Arche is the same as the azimuth of the great circle alignment from Paris to Dendera.
The Grande Arche is a nearly perfect cube with a height of 110 meters, a width of 108 meters and a depth of 112 meters. It is often described as a cube with side lengths of 110 meters. This is equal to 210 ancient Egyptian cubits:
110/210 = .5238
.5238 meters is a precise measure of the ancient Egyptian cubit, equating to 20.6222 inches, well within the ± .005 inches in Petrie's 20.62 inch measure of the ancient Egyptian cubit. Instead of the usual comparisons between the cubit and the meter of .52375/1 or .524/1, the best comparative measure may be the simple fraction of 11/21 that is suggested by the Grande Arche.
Image © Insecula.com
The sides of the Grande Arche are divided into 5 x 5 large panels and within each large panel are 7 x 7 smaller panels. Side lengths of 110 meters suggest lengths of 22 meters for the sides of the large panels with lengths of 22/7 meters for the sides of the smaller panels. The fraction 22/7 equals 3.1428, an accurate expression of π that is also found in the dimensions of the Great Pyramid. Side lengths of 210 cubits in the Grande Arche suggest lengths of 42 cubits for the sides of the large panels and 6 cubits for the sides of the smaller panels. This also shows that the relationship between the meter and the cubit is 6/π, using the measure of 22/7 for π:
21/11 = 6/π
22/7 x 21/11 = 6
The northern pyramid at Dashur, known as the Red Pyramid, was the first true (smooth sided) pyramid built in Egypt and it was the last pyramid built prior to construction of the Great Pyramid. The baselengths of the Red Pyramid are 420 cubits (220 meters) long, 20x multiples of 21/11.
Image by Jon Bodsworth
One of the oldest stone circles in England is at Rollright. The diameter of the Rollright circle is 31.4 meters, an accurate expression of π times 10 meters. Given the 6/π relationship between the meter and the cubit, the diameter of the Rollright circle is also 60 ancient Egyptian cubits.
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