El navegante holandés Jacob Roggeveen avistó la isla el 5 de abril de 1722, Domingo de Pascua. No fue el primero, pero su descubrimiento despertó un gran interés entre publicistas, por lo que fue Roggeveen quien dio el nombre a la isla. Al igual que todos los habitantes de la isla, Pakarati también habla español.
The start of Ramadan in 1930 is on 29 de diciembre, jueves
Ramadan, also known as Ramazan or Ramadhan, is the ninth month of the Islamic lunar calendar and holds immense significance for Muslims worldwide. During this sacred month, Muslims fast from dawn to sunset, engaging in spiritual reflection, prayer, and acts of kindness.
The start of Ramadan in 1930 is anticipated to be on 29 de diciembre, jueves. However, please note that the exact date may vary based on moon sightings and local religious authorities.
Observing Ramadan is one of the Five Pillars of Islam, and it commemorates the month in which the Quran, the holy book of Islam, was revealed to Prophet Muhammad.
During Ramadan, Muslims partake in Suhoor (pre-dawn meal) and Iftar (meal to break the fast at sunset). The month encourages self-discipline, spiritual growth, and empathy towards those less fortunate.
As the start of Ramadan approaches, communities come together for prayers, nightly Tarawih prayers, and charitable activities. It is a time of reflection, gratitude, and increased devotion to Allah.
For the most accurate and up-to-date information on the start date of Ramadan in 1930, please consult with your local mosque or Islamic authority.
The start of Ramadan in 1930 is on 29 de diciembre, jueves
Ramadan, also known as Ramazan or Ramadhan, is the ninth month of the Islamic lunar calendar and holds immense significance for Muslims worldwide. During this sacred month, Muslims fast from dawn to sunset, engaging in spiritual reflection, prayer, and acts of kindness.
The start of Ramadan in 1930 is anticipated to be on 29 de diciembre, jueves. However, please note that the exact date may vary based on moon sightings and local religious authorities.
Observing Ramadan is one of the Five Pillars of Islam, and it commemorates the month in which the Quran, the holy book of Islam, was revealed to Prophet Muhammad.
During Ramadan, Muslims partake in Suhoor (pre-dawn meal) and Iftar (meal to break the fast at sunset). The month encourages self-discipline, spiritual growth, and empathy towards those less fortunate.
As the start of Ramadan approaches, communities come together for prayers, nightly Tarawih prayers, and charitable activities. It is a time of reflection, gratitude, and increased devotion to Allah.
For the most accurate and up-to-date information on the start date of Ramadan in 1930, please consult with your local mosque or Islamic authority.
Imagen de los participantes en la Conferencia de Génova en 1922. El primer ministro británico Lloyd George se encuentra en la primera fila, en el lado izquierdo.
La Conferencia de Génova fue la Segunda Conferencia Monetaria Internacional convocada por la Sociedad de Naciones que tuvo lugar en la ciudad italiana de Génova del 10 de abril al 19 de mayo de 1922. Se reunieron allí 34 países en búsqueda de acuerdos para la reconstrucción del comercio y el sistema financiero internacional, tras la Primera Guerra Mundial. La propuesta que se derivó de la conferencia fue la instauración del denominado patrón cambio oro.1
Descarga una extensión para obtener nuevas funciones y ayudarnos a mejorar Wikipedia
Después de la Primera Guerra Mundial el sistema monetario internacional había quedado totalmente desarticulado. Los países luchaban por retornar al patrón oro, pero había que resolver el tema de las paridades entre las monedas y los déficit fiscales que complicaban el retorno al sistema monetario vigente antes de la guerra.
El sistema del “patrón oro” había funcionado con eficacia durante medio siglo, prácticamente hasta el comienzo de la primera guerra mundial en 1914, había logrado mantener los precios estables a pesar de la gran expansión de la producción, y había asegurado el equilibrio de los compromisos exteriores; de ahí la estabilidad monetaria de los países que lo habían adoptado. Al finalizar la guerra, los países estaban convencidos de que el régimen del patrón oro era indispensable para el equilibrio de la economía, por lo que decidieron restablecerlo inmediatamente, a pesar de las dificultades que este restablecimiento pudiera producirles.
En abril y mayo de 1922 se reunió en Génova un grupo de expertos en temas monetarios que puso fin al mecanismo de ajuste del patrón oro que operaba antes de la Primera Guerra Mundial, y dio nacimiento a un nuevo sistema monetario internacional: el patrón cambio oro. El paso del patrón oro al patrón cambio oro hacía más "elástica" la oferta monetaria de los países, puesto que autorizaba a los bancos centrales a mantener reservas no solamente en oro sino en monedas convertibles a oro, y también los autorizaba a intervenir en el mercado para "moderar" las grandes fluctuaciones del precio del metal.
El plan resultante de la Conferencia de Génova establecía la convertibilidad al oro, la creación de bancos centrales independientes, la disciplina de la política fiscal, la asistencia financiera a los países en determinadas situaciones y la cooperación de los bancos centrales en la administración del sistema financiero internacional, todas estas medidas se materializaron en las siguientes resoluciones:2
« El próximo paso será determinar y dar el valor en oro de las unidades monetarias. Este paso puede darse en cada país solamente cuando las circunstancias económicas lo permitan, ya que el país tendrá que decidir entonces el problema de si adopta la vieja paridad o una nueva que se aproxime al valor de cambio de la unidad monetaria en ese momento.
Estos pasos pueden por sí mismos ser suficientes para establecer un patrón oro, pero el éxito de su mantenimiento será materialmente promovido, no solamente por la colaboración propuesta de los bancos centrales, sino además por una convención internacional a ser adoptada en el momento propicio. El propósito de la convención será centralizar y coordinar la demanda de oro, y de esta manera evitar las grandes fluctuaciones en el poder adquisitivo del oro, que de otro modo podrían resultar de los esfuerzos competitivos simultáneos de un cierto número de países para asegurarse reservas metálicas. La convención debe crear alguna forma de economizar el uso de oro mediante el mantenimiento de reservas en la forma de balances internacionales, como, por ejemplo, el patrón cambio oro, o un sistema de compensaciones internacionales.
Los gobiernos de los países participantes declaran que la restauración del patrón oro es su último objetivo, y están de acuerdo en llevar adelante, tan rápido como puedan, el siguiente programa:
Para tener, un control de su propia moneda cada gobierno debe enfrentar sus gastos anuales sin recurrir a la creación de medios fiduciarios o créditos para ese propósito
El próximo paso será, tan rápido como las circunstancias económicas lo permitan, determinar y dar el valor en oro de la unidad monetaria. Este no tiene que ser necesariamente la paridad oro anterior.
El valor del oro así fijado debe hacerse efectivo en un mercado cambiario libre.
El mantenimiento del valor oro del circulante debe asegurarse mediante la provisión de una adecuada reserva de activos acordados, que no tienen por qué ser necesariamente oro.
Cuando el progreso lo permita, algunos de los países participantes establecerán un mercado libre del oro y se convertirán en centros de oro.
Un país participante, además de las reservas en oro de que disponga dentro, puede mantener en otros países participantes reservas de activos acordados en la forma de saldos bancarios, billetes, títulos de corto plazo u otros recursos líquidos adecuados.
La práctica usual de un país participante será comprar y vender divisas en otros países participantes dentro de una fracción prescripta de paridad, a cambio de su propia moneda.
La Convención estará así basada en un patrón cambio oro. La condición para continuar siendo miembro será el mantenimiento de la moneda nacional en su valor prescripto. Una falla en este respecto habilitará la suspensión del derecho de mantener saldos de reservas en otros países participantes.
Cada país será responsable por las medidas legislativas y de otro tipo necesarias para mantener el valor internacional de su moneda a la par, y será totalmente libre de diseñar y aplicar los medios, sea a través de la regulación del crédito por parte de los bancos centrales o por otro camino.
El crédito será regulado, no solamente con el objetivo de mantener la moneda a la par respecto de otras, sino también con el objetivo de evitar fluctuaciones excesivas en el precio del oro. No se contempla, sin embargo, que la discreción de los bancos centrales esté encadenada por ninguna regla definitiva diseñada para este propósito, sino que sus colaboraciones hayan estado aseguradas fuera de la competencia de los países participantes.»3
Con estas resoluciones, el Pacto de Génova sugería, en definitiva, la adopción de un sistema monetario que permitiera a los gobiernos regular la cantidad de dinero con el fin de mantener "estable" el poder adquisitivo del dinero, evitando "grandes" fluctuaciones en el precio del oro; el nuevo sistema monetario también permitiría a los gobiernos regular las tasas de interés a través de operaciones de mercado abierto, ya que los bancos centrales podrían emitir billetes no solamente contra oro, sino además contra divisas convertibles a oro y contra títulos públicos y privados
Acerca de los efectos monetarios de la guerra, John Maynard Keynes era escéptico sobre las posibilidades de restablecer el patrón oro con las condiciones prebélicas y consideraba que su restauración no proporcionaría una cabal estabilidad de los precios internos, y solamente podría darse la estabilidad en los cambios externos si los demás países también lo restablecían.
En 1923, Keynes hacía hincapié que en el mundo de la primera posguerra donde predominaban del papel moneda y el crédito, no había otra salida que el dinero regulado por las autoridades monetarias, y apuntaba a una visión que en el siglo xx se volvería dominante e iría en contra de la ortodoxia del XIX.4
Sin embargo, la mayoría de los economistas de reputación internacional saludaron favorablemente la adopción del nuevo sistema monetario. En la profesión empezó a predominar la idea de que la meta de toda política monetaria debería ser la estabilidad en el "nivel" de precios.
De 1924 a 1928 una gran cantidad de países retornó al Patrón Oro, pero, tal y como se acordara en la Conferencia de Génova de 1922, la convertibilidad no sería total, así que el sistema operaría como un Patrón Cambios Oro, ya que el preciado metal solo se utilizaría para las liquidaciones internacionales y para regular el cambio. Se desmonetizaba el oro en su uso como monedas nacionales; las transacciones físicas se efectuaban con lingotes.
La vuelta del Reino Unido al sistema de anclaje al oro ocurrió en abril de 1925, con una paridad similar a la existente antes de la guerra. Una condición fundamental para su retorno era la deflación de los precios con respecto a los de Estados Unidos, lo que originó un desempleo considerable. No obstante, Londres comprendía que mientras más demorara su entrada, más probable sería que las reservas de los países recientemente incorporados irían a ser depositadas en Nueva York.
En 1929 cuarenta y seis naciones eran parte del sistema. China permanecía en el Patrón Plata, mientras que la Unión Soviética, Turquía, Portugal y España mantenían tipos de cambio flotantes. Sin embargo, el Patrón Cambios Oro apenas duró seis años: En septiembre de 1931 el Reino Unido suspendió la convertibilidad de las libras esterlinas en oro. Cerca de treinta países abandonaron el Patrón Oro entre 1929 y 1933. A partir de diciembre de 1931 Estados Unidos enfrentó importantes salidas de oro en defensa de su precio, que iban dirigidas fundamentalmente a Francia, y en abril de 1933 decidió abandonar este sistema cambiario, como parte de un paquete de medidas dirigidas a aumentar los precios domésticos.
Since the mid-nineteenth century, Oak Island has been claimed as the site for a vast, secretly hidden store of Templar treasure. Possibly the location of priceless items they discovered under the Temple of Solomon in Jerusalem.
Vast amounts of money have been spent excavating below ground to find millions of dollars worth of medieval booty. Companies have been set up with the sole task of getting to the treasure left behind by these enigmatic warrior knights. So – is the wealth of the Templars actually there?
Of course the answer is – we don’t know. But let’s try and figure out how the story has come about and why it still exercises such a tremendous hold on the popular imagination.
The Viking link to Oak Island
I think a good starting point are the claims made in the 20th century that the Vikings had got to the New World long before Christopher Columbus. Why is this important? Because if the Vikings could have got there – then why not the Templars?
This theory has been supported by the so-called Vinland map (dating from the 15th century), that seems to show our Viking ancestors touched down in north America. Trouble is, the map is just a little too good to be true and even though scholars from the British Museum and Yale backed it up in the 1960s, the evidence (for example dating of the ink) suggests it could be a forgery.
If it was true, the Vinland map would establish the feasibility of Europeans sailing across the Atlantic to the American coastline. It’s not beyond the realms of possibility because the Vikings did get to Iceland and Greenland. Some Templar conspiracy theorists suggest the knights or those who helped them had access to Viking navigation charts.
Moving away from the Vikings now, let’s shift our focus to the Knights Templar. In 1307, their number was up. Philip, king of France, had ordered the arrest of all the knights and they were interrogated under torture in various dungeons. But if the king had hoped to find lots of loot at the Paris Temple, their headquarters, he was to be severely disappointed. Only empty shelves greeted his soldiers.
We then get the story of Templar treasure being spirited away from Paris in wagons bound for the port of La Rochelle and from there on to Scotland (and/or maybe Portugal, see my other blog posts on that option). And then – the wealth of the Templars simply evaporates into thin air!
In his book Lost Treasure of the Knights Templar: Solving the Oak Island Mystery, Steven Sora claims that the Templars’ treasure – gold, silver, jewels and sacred relics of immense power – were firstly hidden away in the crypt at Rosslyn chapel by the Sinclair family. The Sinclairs are central to the whole Templar getaway-via-Scotland theory.
The Sinclair connection
Quick detour on the Sinclair family then. They are an ancient Scottish family that includes Henry, the first earl, who fought alongside the first Grand Master of the Templars, Hugh de Payens (or Payns) in the Holy Land in the early 12th century. So, we have an early association between this family and the order of knights.
Fast forward to the early 14th century and Sir William Sinclair (sometimes spelt St Clair or Saint-Clair) is sometimes held up to have been the last Templar Grand Master before his death in 1330. Trouble is, he also appears to have given evidence at their trials AGAINST the Templars – somewhat scuppering that theory unless he was involved in some kind of complex double bluff!
Then we have another Henry Sinclair who in the late 14th century allegedly explores the coast of north America with an Italian navigator called Antonio Zeno. This establishes the idea that the Sinclair family know all about the New World so are ready for a subsequent very important voyage.
According to Steven Sora, the Sinclairs leave the Templar treasure under Rosslyn until the 16th century. But then along comes the Protestant Reformation. The Sinclairs are devout Catholics. Fearing that that the Templar treasure might be seized, they set sail with it and land on…Oak Island!
Daniel McGinnis on Oak Island
Now, nothing more gets said about this – obviously, being a secret mission – until the 19th century. Then stories circulate in newspapers of discoveries made on the island by a man called Daniel McGinnis in the 1790s. I’ve read different versions of the McGinnis story. In one account, he found a curious depression in the ground while setting up his farm. Or, he saw unusual lights on the island one evening and sailed across, discovering the pit when he got there.
The story of McGinnis and his excavations only emerges fifty years later in a paper called the Liverpool Transcript. By the mid-nineteenth century, tales of pirates and their hidden treasure had become the stuff of boys’ magazines. In 1881, the author Robert Louis Stevenson would publish Treasure Island in a boys’ magazine called Young Folks. The Oak Island booty came to be associated with both the Templars and notorious pirates like Captain Kidd and Blackbeard.
This was also an era of gold rushes – speculators dashing to reputed finds of the precious metal. So, maybe not entirely surprising that Oak Island was soon swarming with diggers. The main attention was the Oak Island Money Pit. This was a curious shaft with what appeared to be booby traps set at different levels.
Most intriguing was the discovery of a stone slab that allegedly has carved on it the message: Forty feet below, two million pounds lay buried. That line is best said if you impersonate Nicholas Cage in the movie National Treasure. More seriously, at least six people have died investigating the very deep money pit due to flooding and in one case, a boiler exploding.
The Franklin Roosevelt connection
One well known Oak Island devotee was the US president Franklin Roosevelt (pictured above). The Democrat occupant of the White House through the 1930s was a Freemason and from his youth until his death in 1945, retained an abiding interest in the site. One feature that apparently gripped him was the rumour that the jewels of the last queen of France, Marie Antoinette, had been squirrelled away on the island.
Which brings us to the 21st century! Such is the level of interest in Oak Island that the History channel has just commissioned a whopping 30 hours for season six of its series The Curse of Oak Island. This runaway success of a documentary series features two Michigan brothers Rick and Marty Lagina who have bought much of Oak Island to pursue the treasure hunt. They are accompanied by local expert, Dan Blankenship.
Rick is a retired US postal worker who passionately believes something lurks under the surface. His brother Marty is the sceptical foil raising doubts every so often about their enterprise. However, as the digs proceed, Marty is seen to convert by degrees to the cause.
The programme has attracted an impressive four million views. And it’s spawned two spin-offs: The Curse of Civil War Gold and Yamashita’s Gold. The first spin-off speaks for itself. The second is the alleged burial of treasure by Japanese soldiers in the closing days of World War II in the Philippine jungle.
In case you missed my recent outing on the History channel – I appeared in episode four of the Templar documentary series Buriedearlier this year. Together with presenters Mikey Kay and Garth Baldwin, we looked for Templar treasure in the ancient citadel of Tomar in Portugal.
Excavation work on Oak Island during the 19th century
The Oak Island mystery is a series of stories and legends concerning buried treasure and unexplained objects found on or near Oak Island in Nova Scotia, Canada. As of 2025, the main treasure has not been found.[1]
Since the 18th century, attempts have been made to find treasure and artifacts. Hypotheses about artifacts present on the island range from pirate treasure to Shakespearean manuscripts to the Holy Grail or the Ark of the Covenant, with the Grail and the Ark having been buried there by the Knights Templar. Various items have surfaced over the years that were found on the island, some of which have since been dated to be hundreds of years old.[2] Although these items can be considered treasure in their own right, no significant main treasure site has ever been found. The site consists of digs by numerous individuals and groups of people. The original shaft, the location of which is unknown today, was dug by early explorers, and is known as "the money pit".
A "curse" on the treasure is said to have originated more than a century ago and states that seven men will die in the search for the treasure before it is found.[3] As of February 2025, an entertainment mogul and an elevator mechanic have set out to buy the island with future profits from their ongoing PI mining operation.
Very little verified information is known about early treasure-related activities on Oak Island; thus, the following accounts are word of mouth stories reportedly going back to the late eighteenth century.[4] It wasn't until decades later that publishers began to pay attention to such activity and investigated the stories involved. The earliest known story of a treasure found by a settler named Daniel McGinnis appeared in print in 1857. It then took another five years before one of the alleged original diggers gave a statement regarding the original story along with subsequent Onslow and Truro Company activities.
The original story by early settlers (first recorded in print in 1863) involves a dying sailor from the crew of Captain Kidd (d. 1701), in which he states that treasure worth £2 million had been buried on the island.[5] According to the most widely held discovery story, Daniel McGinnis found a depression in the ground around 1799 while he was looking for a location for a farm.[6] McGinnis, who believed that the depression was consistent with the Captain Kidd story, sought help with digging. With the assistance of two men identified only as John Smith and Anthony Vaughn, he excavated the depression and discovered a layer of flagstones two feet (61 cm) below.[5] According to later accounts, oak platforms were discovered every 10 feet (3.0 m); however, the earliest accounts simply mention "marks" of some type at these intervals.[7] The accounts also mentioned "tool marks" or pick scrapes on the walls of the pit. The earth was noticeably loose, not as hard-packed as the surrounding soil.[7] The three men reportedly abandoned the excavation at 30 feet (9.1 m) due to "superstitious dread".[8] Another twist on the story has all four people involved as teenagers. In this rendering McGinnis first finds the depression in 1795 while on a fishing expedition. The rest of the story is consistent with the first involving the logs found, but ends with all four individuals giving up after digging as much as they could.[4][9][10]
In about 1802, a group known as the Onslow Company allegedly sailed from central Nova Scotia to Oak Island to recover what they believed to be hidden treasure.[a] They continued the excavation down to about 90 feet (27 m), with layers of logs (or "marks") found about every ten feet (3.0 m), and also discovered layers of charcoal, putty and coconutfibre along with a large stone inscribed with symbols.[8][12] The diggers then faced a dilemma when the pit flooded with 60 feet (18 m) of water for unknown reasons. The alleged excavation was eventually abandoned after workers attempted to recover the treasure from below by digging a tunnel from a second shaft that also flooded.[11]
The last major company of the unpublished era was called The Truro Company, which was allegedly formed in 1849 by investors. The pit was re-excavated back down to the 86-foot (26 m) level, but ended up flooding again. It was then decided to drill five bore holes using a pod-auger into the original shaft. The auger passed through a spruce platform at 98 feet (30 m), then hit layers of oak, something described as "metal in pieces", another spruce layer, and clay for 7 feet (2.1 m).[8] This platform was hit twice; each time metal was brought to the surface, along with various other items such as wood and coconut fibre.[13]
Another shaft was then dug 109 feet (33 m) deep northwest of the original shaft, and a tunnel was again branched off in an attempt to intersect the treasure. Once again though, seawater flooded this new shaft; workers then assumed that the water was connected to the sea because the now-flooded new pit rose and fell with each tide cycle. The Truro Company shifted its resources to excavating a nearby cove known as "Smith's Cove" where they found a flood tunnel system.[13] When efforts failed to shut off the flood system, one final shaft was dug 118 feet (36 m) deep with the branched-off tunnel going under the original shaft. Sometime during the excavation of this new shaft, the bottom of the original shaft collapsed. It was later speculated that the treasure had fallen through the new shaft into a deep void causing the new shaft to flood as well.[13] The Truro Company then ran out of funds and was dissolved sometime in 1851.[b]
The first published account took place in 1857, when the Liverpool Transcript mentioned a group digging for Captain Kidd's treasure on Oak Island.[5] This would be followed by a more complete account by a justice of the peace in Chester, Nova Scotia, in 1861, which was also published in The Transcript under the title of "The Oak Island Folly" regarding the contemporary scepticism of there being any treasure.[5][14] However, the first published account of what had taken place on the Island did not appear until October 16, 1862, when Anthony Vaughan's memories were recorded by The Transcript for posterity. Activities regarding the Onslow and Truro Companies were also included that mention the mysterious stone and the Truro owned auger hitting wooden platforms along with the "metal in pieces".[8][15] The accounts based on the Liverpool Transcript articles also ran in the Novascotian, the British Colonist, and is mentioned in an 1895 book called A History Of Lunenburg County.[16][17][18]
Franklin D. Roosevelt, stirred by family stories originating from his sailing and trading grandfather (and Oak Island financier) Warren Delano Jr., began following the mystery in late 1909 and early 1910. Roosevelt continued to follow it until his death in 1945.[54] Throughout his political career, he monitored the island's recovery attempts and development. Although the president secretly planned to visit Oak Island in 1939 while he was in Halifax, fog and the international situation prevented him from doing so.[55]
Australian-American actor Errol Flynn invested in an Oak Island treasure dig.[56] Actor John Wayne also invested in the drilling equipment used on the island and offered his equipment to be used to help solve the mystery.[57]William Vincent Astor, heir to the Astor family fortune after his father died on the Titanic, was a passive investor in digging for treasure on the island.[57]
Rear Admiral Richard E. Byrd Jr. was also a passive investor in Oak Island exploration and treasure hunting, and monitored their status.[4] Byrd advised Franklin D. Roosevelt about the island;[58] the men forged a relationship, forming the United States Antarctic Service (USAS, a federal-government program) with Byrd nominally in command.[59]
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